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China and the Silk Road - Earliest Development of Civilization and Overland Trade with the West
A Chronology of the Silk Road
Estimated 500 BC - 14Th Century Emergence Maritime Trading Routes
This page was last updated on: June 22, 2019
This page was last updated on: June 22, 2019
AD 660-705: The Silk Road of the Tang Dynasty - Wu Zetian and the (2nd) Zhou Dynasty interbellum.
Silk Road (5a) The T’ang Dynasty (618 AD - 660 AD): Early Flourishing Period o/t Tang Dynasty
-----> History of the Silk Road :
See Also - The
Han Dynasty
and the
Tang Dynasty
history.
630 AD : In about 630 AD Hsüan-tsang (Xuan Zhang) travels through Lanzhou on the Yellow River and JiaYuGuan & Pass to Dunhuang , where he leaves the Jade Gate to travel along the Silk Road to India. The Journey is a dangerous, adventurous, interesting and perilous one. Among countries and sites visted: The Bedal Pass (Iron Gate), Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan , Bamian in Afghanistan , The Khyber Pass, then parts of today's Karakoram Highway and finally the Kashmir Region.
In India Xuanzang's Travels were also extensive. In pilgrimage he visited several of the places where important events in the Life of the (Sakayamuni) Buddha took place.
Many Years later and much the wiser on the religion of Buddhism he returned through Kashgar , Khotan and Dunhuang to arrive in 645 AD at Chang'An and meet a Heroes welcome. Xuanzang was to translate his Buddhist Scripture collection and become a Master of Buddhism, the founding Father, Professor and head Master of the Da Cien Si Temple and Sect of the Tang Capital. His Life, work and Legacy leave a unique and continuing impression on Chinese Culture and Civilisation
In Xi'An Xuanzhang wrote the Hsi Yu Chi. In the aftermath of Xuanzang's Journey to the West the Tang Dynasty saw a popular rise of Buddhism and much political intrigue, all favoring Buddhism in Tang China. The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas are heavily utilized by Buddhist monks, nuns, and worshippers, with considerable T’ang art work added.
Route Map of Xuanzang's "Journey to The West" (India).
June 18, 618 AD: The Sui Dynasty (581 AD - 618 AD)(Chinese: 隋朝) ends: The rebel leader Li Yuan captures Luoyang, and has Emperor Yángdi (隋炀帝), who after having received threats to his life has fled Chang'An ( Xi'An) and is in the secondary Capital, murdered. He proclaims himself Emperor Gao Zu and establishes the Tang Dynasty, one of the most notable dynasties in Chinese history, which will last for almost 300 years. Although the Sui Dynasty was relatively short-lived as opposed to there Chinese Dynasties, it left a lasting legacy upon which the Emperors and leadership of the Tang Dynasty could build what was to become a large Empire. The most noted accomplishment of the Sui Dynasty was the elongation and improvements of the Grand Canal, which was to serve its purposes for centuries to become a mainstay of the Ming Dynasty (1268 AD - 1644 AD), and would serve throughout the Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644 AD - 1911 AD). Other far less noted accomplishment were in the field of Law and the organisation of Government.
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Map of the Modern Silk Road, connecting Istanbul in Turkey via highways, roads and railways to Beijing in the Far East. Travel beyond that point is possible to Vladivostok, Dalian and Dandong in Liaoning Province, or Pyongyang in North Korea, DPRK.
On the Western side, Istanbul connects via former Yugoslavia to the European Railway network.
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636 A.D. Completion of The Book of Sui (Suí Shū ; Simplified Chinese: 隋书), the official history of the Sui Dynasty (581 AD - 618 AD) , as compiled by its successor Dynasty the Tang Dynasty (618 A.D. - 907 A.D.) . Officially recognised as the first authorative history of the Sui Dynasty this book also includes a mass of names, dates and information regarding the history and development of the Silk Road in Central Asia in this era. It ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was commissioned by Emperor Taizong (Life: 28 January 598 AD - 10 July 649 ; Reign: 4 September 626 - 10 July 649) of the Tang Dynasty, and written by a team of prominent scholars, including Yan Shigu, Kong Yingda, and Zhangsun Wuji, with Wei Zheng as the lead author. Because it could not yet include the information gained through the extensive travels and adventures of the Monk Xuanzang on his journey through the Silk Road to India and vice versa, the book represent the situation and views as directly prior to the monumental work done by Xuanzang after his return to Chang'An (Xi'An) in 645 AD. The Book of Sui contains; Annals, Treatises and Biographies.
646 AD: One year after his return from India delivering to Chinese Civilization some 657 complete volumes of Buddhist Scriptures, the Monk Xuanzang completes the compilation of all information gained on his travels through what were at the time 125 countries and territories during a period of some 17 years. All is published for the Tang Emperor and his court in the book: "Record of the Great Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty" (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions ; simplified Chinese: 大唐西域记 ; Traditional Chinese: 大唐西域記), which today remains recognised as an invaluable early source of information on the history, cultures, habits and geography of Central Asian regions as well as parts of India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka in the period of the 7th century AD. The book contains more than 120,000 Chinese characters and is divided into twelve volumes, which describe the geography, land and maritime transportation, climate, local products, people, language, history, politics, economic life, religion, culture, and customs in 110 countries, regions and city-states from Xinjiang to Persia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, among other regions
In 630, the same year that the Monk Xuanzang illegally crosses the last Gate of the Silk Road and the borders of China which are closed due to ongoing hostilities in regions extending to the north and west, Emperor Taizong sent his general Li Jing against the Göktürk Khanate (also known as: Eastern Turks; Göktürks, Celestial Turks, Blue Turks or Kok Turks (Old Turkic: Kök Türük Chinese: 突厥/تُكِئ; pinyin: Tūjué, Khotanese Saka Ttūrka, Ttrūka, Old Tibetan Drugu), defeating and capturing its Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi while nearly annihilating Göktürk military power. This important and succesful military campaign against united opposition from the nomadic Turkish peoples occupying Central Asian crossroads east of the Caspian Sea made Tang Dynasty the dominant power in East and Central Asia, and also cleared the way for the re-founding of the Silk Road as an active conduit between China and ultimately far western Asia , the Mediterranean Sea and Europe. Having thus gained a new level of confidence, power and wealth, the Emperor Taizong subsequently took the title of Tengeri Qaghan ("Tenger Khan" or the God like Emperor).
Subsequently, having been victorious further westward, Emperor Taizong then launched a series of campaigns against the oasis states of the Tarim Basin in effort to widen his control over the important Tarim River Basin which holds the Taklamakan Desert as well as the routes of the silk road in (current day) western China (Xinjiang).
During the reign of the Taizong Emperor, Tang armies annexed Karakhoja (near current day Turpan in Xinjiang ) in 640, Karasahr (Tocharian Ārśi (or Arshi), and; Sanskrit अग्निदेश Agnideśa ; Chinese: 焉耆; pinyin: Yānqí)(Today: the capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang) in 644 and its neighboring state of Kucha (Kuçar, Kuchar; Uyghur: كۇچار , Куча, simplified Chinese: 龟兹; traditional Chinese: 龜茲; pinyin: Qiūcí)(Today: Kucha County Town of Kucha County in Aksu Prefecture in Xinjiang) in 648.
Military Campaigns were also directed against the main allies of the humiliated Gokturks, the Western Turks ( Western Turkic Khaganate or Onoq Khaganate (Chinese: 西突厥)(581 A.D –657 A.D) which (at its highpoint) occupied what is now Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan and parts of Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan and Russia.
647 AD: Less than two years after the return of the Monk and Buddhist Master Xuanzang to the Tang Era Capital of China, on order of Emperor Tang Gaozong, the Da Cien Temple and Sect (also Dayan Ta (大雁塔)) is founded at the (Imperial) Temple of Great Benefaction in Chang'An. The Da Cien Temple, to the world better known as the Great Goose Pagoda of Xi'An, becomes the center of studies of Buddhist knowledge as gained by Master Xuanzang who is appointed Abbot of the Temple, Library and study center. With this it is also the home Temple (and Pagoda) of the Da Cien Buddhist Sect, which will grow to become one of the leading Mahayana Buddhist (Great Vehicle) sects in all of China. In the future it will have great influence on the development of Buddhism in Chinese society.
July 10, 649 AD: Death of Emperor Tang Gaozong, through conquests in Central Asia up to the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Tenger Khan or God Like Emperor. Coronation of Emperor Tang Taizong (Li Zhi)(Reign: 649 AD - 683 AD).
January 665 AD: Although some historians hold events as to have been an effectively engineered Coup D'Etat, officially all State matters in Tang Dynasty China fall into the hands of Empress Wu Zetian (武則天), after her husband the Emperor Tang Taizong suffers a series of strokes. Signing all matters of State over to the Empress laid the foundations for a fresh new intermediate period in the Tang Dynasty history, as for the first time the entire Chinese State was effectively ruled by a woman. Positioning herself as a great Matriarch of Buddhism as opposing the earlier Confucian paternalist style, in this period of myriad of new Buddhist wonders of the Silk Road are created. As a result of her reign all of Chinese society will see a period of revelation, until, after her death she is thoroughly vilified and the order of the ancient Confucian patriarchal system throughly restored within the common minds of the people. For the first time in living memory Chinese women are able to go abouts on the streets without male escorts and within elite circles women may be held equal to men in all affairs of State and even the military (although as one may deduce from archeological finds, in earliest Chinese history women generals and warlords had already taken high positions within society in the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC - 1121 BC)).
View of the iconic 7 storey brick pagoda raised to 7 stories height near the end of the reign of Empress regnant Wu Zetian on a quiet day in the year 2003. Since, the Temple and surrounding grounds have been transformed into a tourist zone celebrating the historic Tang Dynasty heritage of city, region and Chinese people.
July 636 A.D.: The death of Empress Zhangsun (長孫皇后, personal name unknown)(Life: 601 AD – 28 July 636 AD) inaugurates the Zhaoling Mausoleum (also Zhao Mausoleum (昭陵; pinyin: Zhāolíng; "Zhao" means the light of the sun)(situated in current day Xiangyang City Prefecture , north west of Xi'An ) which will go on in history to become the largest of all 18 mausolea of the Tang Dynasty, an important Chinese historical monument and archeological depository of art and treasures related to the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty Era (618 AD - 907 AD). Construction of the Zhaoling Mausoleum lasted 107 years beginning with burial of Empress Wende in 636 until completion in 741 AD. Later on it will become the burial place of Emperor Tang Gaozong (Life: 21 July 628 AD - 27 December 683 AD) and a large retinue of important officials and military men. When (partially) excavated in the 2nd half of the 20th century the 190 tombs (37 of which have been excavated so far) of the mausoleum covering an area of 87.5 square miles yield priceless archeological objects, murals, paintings, statues and documents all of which are today regarded as National Cultural Treasures of the Peoples' Republic of China .
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October 6, 618 AD: Having led his troops out of the blocked city of Luoyang, Wang Shichong decisively defeats Li Mi at the Battle of Yanshi (偃師之戰), east of Luoyang, during the transition from Sui to Tang civil war .
618 AD: Tong Yabghu Qaghan becomes the new ruler (Khagan) of the Western Turkic Khaganate (or Onoq Khaganate (Chinese: 西突厥; pinyin: Xi tūjué)), founding the Khazar Khaganate (Xəzər Xaqanlığı)(650 AD - 969 AD). After assuming power he maintains close relations with the neighbouring Chinese Tang Dynasty, and possibly marries into the imperial family.
November 29, 618 AD: At the Battle of Qianshuiyuan (浅水原之战), northwest of present-day Changwu in Shaanxi Province, The Tang Dynasty scores a decisive victory over their rival Xue Rengao (薛仁杲)(also Xue Renguo (薛仁果)), leader and Emperor of the short-lived State of Qin (秦) which had been established during the last few years of the Sui Dynasty and had it's Capital at Tianshui (in the Wei River Valley, in the east of current day Gansu Province). Xue Rengao is forced to surrender to Tang Dynasty General Li Shimin (later Emperor Tang Taizong) and is executed.
618 AD - 906 AD: T’ang Dynasty expands westward in a “forward policy” that spread its power farther into Central Asia than ever before.
618 AD: Songtsän Gampo (Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ, Wylie: srong btsan sgam po)(Life: 569/605 AD - 649 AD) becomes 33rd Tibetan King and the first Emperor of the Tibetan Empire, after his father Namri Songtsen is poisoned. During his reign he expands Tibet's power beyond Lhasa (Tibetan Plateau) and the Yarlung Valley. Being the first to be traditionally credited with bringing Buddhism into Tibet in Tibetan history he will become legendary as the first of the Three Dharma Kings (Chokgyal).
618 AD: The Persians besiege Alexandria (harbor city at the mouth of the Nile River on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt); the defence of the city is led by Nicetas (cousin of Emperor Heraclius (Latin: Flavius Heracles Augustus; Greek: Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος, translit. Flavios Iraklios)(Life: Ca. 575 AD - February 11, 641 AD). The Byzantine resistance is undermined by a blockade of the harbor; the usual grain supplies are cut off from Egypt to Constantinople (current day Istanbul).
618 AD: Byzantine–Sasanian War: A Persian expeditionary force under Shahrbaraz invades Egypt, and occupies the province. After defeating the Byzantine garrisons in the Nile Valley, the Persians march across the Libyan Desert as far as Cyrene.
619 AD: Byzantine–Sasanian War: The besieged city of Alexandria is captured by the Persians. Nicetas, cousin of Emperor Heraclius, and Chalcedonian patriarch, John V, flee to Cyprus. King Khosrow II extends his rule southwards along the Nile.
619 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius prepares to leave Constantinople (current day Istanbul) in order to move the Byzantine capital to Carthage (Latin: Carthago; Punic: 𐤒𐤓𐤕•𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕, Qart-ḥadašt, "New City")(in current day Tunisia), but is convinced to stay by Sergius I, patriarch of Constantinople. He begins to rebuild the Byzantine army with the aid of funds from church treasures.
Around 619 AD: The Avars (also known as the Obri in chronicles of Rus, the Abaroi or Varchonitai (Varchonites) or Pseudo-Avars in Byzantine sources), an alliance of several groups of Eurasian nomads of various origins, attack the outskirts of Constantinople. Numerous Slavic tribes rebel against Avar overlordship; they carve out their own sovereign territory in Moravia and Lower Austria.
Around 619 AD: The calculation of the Chinese calendar begins to use true motions of the sun and moon, modeled using two offset opposing parabolas.
November 22, 619 AD: The Prophet of Islam Muhammad's first wife, Khadija (Khadījah bint Khuwaylid (Arabic: خديجة بنت خويلد) or Khadījah al-Kubra (Khadijah the Great))(Life: 555 AD - 22 November 619 AD), dies after 24 years of marriage in the "Year of Sorrow". She was buried in Jannat al-Mu'alla cemetery, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad later called this year, the tenth year after his becoming the Prophet of Islam, "the Year of Sorrow", as his uncle and protector Abu Talib also died at this time.
619 AD: Kubrat (Greek: Κοβρāτος, Kούβρατος; Bulgarian: Кубрат)(also Kurt (Коуртъ)) of the Dulo Clan, ruler of the Bulgars, is baptised in Constantinople where he has been a resident at Court. It solidifies a pre-planned alliance between the Bulgars and Byzantines against the Sasanian–Avar alliance.
November 2, 619 AD: The Tang of China open what will become a long war against Tujue Tribes by launching a series of military campaigns westward directed against the domination of the Western Turks in these regions (Today part of the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, China (P.R.C.)); A Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate is assassinated in a Chinese palace by Eastern Turkic rivals, with the approval of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. Later, the lengthy military campaign will be duly remembered as the first steps to re-open the Silk Road connecting China through central Asia to the western world.
619 AD: The Second Perso-Turkic War is fought and ends with a decisive Persian victory.
619 AD: The Meccan boycott of the Hashemites and Muhammad ends.
September 14, 619 AD: Yang You (楊侑)(Life: 605 AD - 14 September 619 AD), Formerly Emperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝), considered to have been the last Emperor of the Sui Dynasty dies at age 14. It is presumed that he was murdered on orders of Emperor Tang Gaozu.
619 AD: Yang Tong (楊侗)(Life: 604 AD - 619 AD), briefly declared as Emperor of the Sui Dynasty in late 618 AD, is murdered on orders of Sui Dynasty General Wang Shichong (王世充)(Life: 567 AD - 621 AD).
June 29, 619 AD: Li Gui (李軌), Emperor of the short-lived state Liang with it's Capital at Wuwei west of the Yellow River (Huang He) in current day Gansu Province is captured at his Capital and subsequently murdered on orders of emerging Emperor Tang Gaozu.
620 AD: Byzantine–Sassanid War: King Khosrau II captures Ancyra (current day Ankara, Capital of Turkey), an important Byzantine military base in central Anatolia. After the conquest of Egypt and Palestine, he restores the Persian Empire as it existed in 490 BC under Darius I.
620 AD (or 621 AD): According to traditional Islamic beliefs, the Prophet Muhammad undertakes the Journey to "the farthest Mosque" (taken to have been the Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This is known as the event of Isra. He leads the Islamic Faithful there in prayers before ascending to the Heavens (God). This second event is known as Mi'raj (the ascension to heaven to meet God).
620 AD: The Slavs invade the area around Thessaloniki (Greece), which is unsuccessfully besieged. The city becomes a Byzantine enclave surrounded by Slavic territory. Urban life disappears and many towns in the Balkan Peninsula become villages.
620 AD: Death of the Chuluo Khan (Turkic: Çuluk Han, simplified Chinese: 处罗; traditional Chinese: 處羅; pinyin: Chùluo Kěhàn, Middle Chinese: (Guangyun) [tɕʰi̯o˥lɑ˩ kʰɑ˥ɣɑn˩˥])(Life: unknown - 620 AD), ruler of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (Chinese: 東突厥; pinyin: Dōng tūjué), after having ruled for only 18 months. He is said to have died from illness but was possibly poisoned by his Minister of Ceremonies.
621 AD: Chinese Tang Dynasty Emperor Gaozu delegates control of his military and civil administration in the east to his second son, Li Shimin. He concentrates on reforming coinage and taxation.
May 28, 621 AD: Battle of Hulao (虎牢之戰): Li Shimin defeats the numerically superior Chinese rebel army of Dou Jiande (竇建德)(Life: 573 AD - August 3, 621 AD) near the Hulao Pass (虎牢關, meaning "Tiger Cage Pass") in Henan near Luoyang. Although You Jiande is defeated, captured and not much later executed on orders of Emperor Gaozu, the peasant rebellion soon re-arises in the eastern provinces under leadership of Dou's general Liu Heita.
June 4, 621 AD: Wang Shichong, who in 619 had murdered Sui Dynasty "Emperor" Yang Tong ( 楊侗)(Life: 604 AD - 619 AD) and subsequently declared himself Emperor, surrenders to Li Shimin at Luoyang following Dou Jiande's defeat. Gaozu spares his life, but has him degraded to the rank of commoner and exiled to Sichuan Province. He is later assassinated by Dugu Xiude, the son of Dugu Ji.
621 AD: According to the tradition, Muhammad, Islamic prophet, is said to have visited heaven aboard the steed/unicorn with wings or Buraq, in the Isra wal-Miraj, (the Night Journey), from Mecca and then to heaven from Jerusalem's Baytul Majilis, then back to Mecca.
621 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius concludes a peace agreement (in exchange for an annual tribute) with the Avars on the Balkan Peninsula, giving him free hand to assemble Byzantine forces in Asia Minor for a non-military expenditure against the Persian Empire.
621 AD: Death of Xiao Xian (蕭銑)(Life: 583 AD - 621 AD), last ruler of the rebel Liang Dynasty which had arisen in the last decade of the Sui Dynasty with its Capital at Wuwei but had been driven southward after the fall of Wuwei and capture of Liang Emperor Li Gui (李軌). Xiao Xian was a descendant of the imperial house of the Chinese Liang Dynasty. After the fall of Wuwei, he tried to revive Liang, and for several years appeared to be successful in doing so, as he, with his capital at Jiangling (Chinese: 江陵; pinyin: Jiānglíng)(Today a county of Jingzhou City Prefecture, Hubei Province), ruled over a state that included most of modern Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. In 621, however, under an attack by the Tang Dynasty general Li Xiaogong, he, not realizing that relief forces were approaching Jiangling, surrendered. He was subsequently taken to the Tang capital Chang'an ( Xi'An), where Emperor Gaozu of Tang executed him.
Around 621 AD: The Chinese establish an imperial bureau for the manufacture of porcelain. Their technology will advance further under the Tang Dynasty.
622 AD: The Western Turks (Chinese: Xi Tujue) conquer the Oxus valley and cooperate with Byzantine Emperor Heraclius against Persia, taking Khorasan (modern Afghanistan).
622 AD: Byzantine–Sasanian War: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius sails from Constantinople with an expeditionary force (probably 50,000 men), and starts a counter-offensive against the Persian Empire (his young son, Constantine III, is left behind as regent under the charge of Sergius I, patriarch of Constantinople, and patrician Bonus). He lands a few days later at the junction of Cilicia and Syria, near Alexandretta and ancient Issus (Phoenician: Sissu, Ancient Greek: Ἱσσός or Ἱσσοί).
622 AD: Battle of Issus: Heraclius defeats the Persian forces under Shahrbaraz in Cappadocia. He recaptures Anatolia, but returns to Constantinople to deal with the threat posed to his Balkan domains by the Avars, and puts the Byzantine army into winter quarters in Pontus (Greek: Πόντος, translit. Póntos, "Sea")(a historical region on the souther coast of the Black Sea in current day Turkey).
622 AD: At Luoyang, Xuanzang, later famous as traveler to India and founder and Abbot of the Da Cien Temple (Great Benefaction Temple, more popularly known as Great Goose Pagoda) in Chang'An ( Xi'An), is fully ordained as a Buddhist monk at the age of 20.
September 9 or June 17, 622 AD: The Islamic prophet Muhammad, after being warned of a plot to assassinate him, secretly leaves his home in Mecca to make the Hegira (emigrate) to Yathrib (later renamed by him Medina (In Hejaz Region, Saudi Arabia )), along with his companion Abu Bakr (Abū Bakr aṣ-Ṣiddīq ‘Abdallāh bin Abī Quḥāfah (Arabic: أبو بكر الصديق عبد الله بن أبي قحافة;)(Life: Ca. 573 AD - 23 August 634 AD). They take refuge in the Cave of Thawr south of Mecca for three days, departing on September 13 or June 21.
October 4 or July 13, 622 AD: After a fourteen days' stay in Quba, Muhammad finally moves from Quba to Yathrib, and is greeted cordially by its people. Here he drafts the Constitution of Medina, an agreement between the various Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan tribal communities in the city, forming the basis of a multi-religious Islamic state, and begins construction of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi Mosque (Classical Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـدُ ٱلـنَّـبَـوِيّ, Al-Masjidun-Nabawiyy; Modern Standard Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـدْ اَلـنَّـبَـوِي, Al-Masjid An-Nabawī). Later during the caliphate of Umar in 638, the lunar year during which the emigration to Medina occurred (Friday 16 July 622 - 4 July 623) is designated "Year One" of the new Hijri year (Anno Hegirae – AH).
623 AD: Byzantine–Sasanid War: Emperor Heraclius invades Armenia, leaving his son Constantine (age 11) and co-regent Bonus to defend Constantinople against the Persians still at Chalcedon (modern Turkey). He sails with 5,000 reinforcements to join the Byzantine army at Trapezus (Today: Trebizond, Trabzon Province, Turkey). Raising additional forces in Pontus, Heraclius strikes through the mountains of Armenia and the northern sub-Caucasian principalities. He plunders Media ( Azerbaijan), and avoids the Persian armies who attempt to trap him.
623 AD: Tuyuhun invasion of Gansu: Tang forces under Chai Shao defeat the Tuyuhun (Chinese: 吐谷渾 ; Tibetan: ‘A-zha)(A Kingdom of nomadic peoples holding Sway over parts of the Qilian (Heavenly) Mountains and northern parts of the Yellow River valley thus blocking the crucial Hexi Corridor, the "neck of China" leading the Silk Road westwards), and prevent further incursions in Gansu (Today, Gansu Province, China (P.R.C.)). Hostilities between the Tuyuhun and Tang continued after the battle with the Tuyuhun still occupying regions around the Koko Nor (Today renamed Qinghai Lake by the Peoples' Republic of China) high on the north-eastern Tibetan plateau and within striking distance of the Hexi Corridor and the middle sections of the Yellow River (Huang He).
623 AD: The "multi-religious" State founded by Muhammad on the principles of his own beliefs fails. The Jewish community in Medina (Previously: Yathrib)( Saudi Arabia ) rejects the idea of Muhammad being a leader of Judaism. He and his followers stop bowing toward Jerusalem and start bowing toward Ka'ba (Kaaba (Arabic: ٱلْـكَـعْـبَـة al-kaʿbah IPA: [alˈkaʕba], "The Cube")). Muhammad abandons Saturday as the Sabbath.
March 13, 624 AD: Battle of Badr: Muhammad and some 300 of his followers from Medina surprise a reinforced Meccan caravan at Badr (Arabic: بَـدْر, full name: Badr Hunayn, Arabic: بدر حنین)(modern-day Badr, Al Madinah Province, Al-Hijaz Region, Saudi Arabia) returning from Syria, and defeat about 1,000 Quraysh (the most powerful tribe of pre-Islamic Arabia) from Mecca. After having heard that Quraysh clan leader Abu Sufyan (Sakhr ibn Harb (Arabic: صخر بن حرب))(Life: 560 AD - 650 AD) is escorting a rich trade caravan, Muhammad has filled the wells along its route (southwest of Medina) with sand in order to lure him into battle.
624 AD: The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia is completed during the Tang Dynasty (618 AD - 907 AD), by the Chinese calligrapher Ouyang Xun (Life: 557 AD - 641 AD)(Its other contributors included Linghu Defen and Chen Shuda). The encyclopedia is divided into 47 sections and many subsections. It covers all subjects and contains many quotations from older works, which are well cited. Today many are long lost, and it is one of the sources many centuries later used by Ming (1368 AD - 1644 AD) and Qing (1644 AD - 1911 AD) scholars to reconstruct the lost Record of the Seasons of Jingchu. (Jingchu Suishiji ; simplified Chinese: 荆楚岁时记 ; traditional Chinese: 荊楚歲時記 ; Japanese: 荊楚歲時記 (Kanji)).
624 AD: Byzantine–Sasanian War: Emperor Heraclius advances with an expeditionary force (40,000 men) along the Araxes (also Aras, Arax ; Greek: Ἀράξης ; Armenian: Արաքս) River, destroying the fortress city of Dvin (Classical Armenian: Դուին, reformed: Դվին; Greek: Δούβιος, Doύbios or Τίβιον, Tίbion; Arabic: دبيل, translit. Dabīl or Doubil; also Duin or Dwin in ancient sources), capital of medieval Armenia, and Nakhchivan (Azerbaijani: Naxçıvan, Armenian: Նախիջևան)(Today: Capital of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan). At Ganzak (Persian: گنزک Ganzak, Greek: Gazaca, Latin: Gaza, Ganzaga, Arabic: Janza, Jaznaq)(Today a lost city located somewhere south of Lake Urmia in northern Iran), Heraclius defeats the Persian army and destroys the famous fire temple at Takht-e Soleymān (Takht-e Soleymān (Persian: تخت سلیمان), also known as Azar Goshnasp (Persian: آتشکده آذرگشنسپ), literally "the Fire of the Warriors" ; today an archaeological site in West Azarbaijan, Iran), an important Zoroastrian shrine. He winters his army in Caucasian Albania to gather forces for the next year.
Winter, 624 AD: Sasanid Persian King Khosrow II (Chosroes II in classical sources; Middle Persian: Husrō(y)), entitled "Aparvēz" ("The Victorious"), also Khusraw Parvēz (New Persian: خسرو پرویز) withdraws most of his troops from Chalcedon (Anatolia); he assembles three armies to trap and destroy Heraclius' Byzantine forces. The Persians go into winter quarters nearby, but Heraclius attacks them at Tigranakerta (Greek: Τιγρανόκερτα, Tigranόkerta; Tigranakert (Armenian: Տիգրանակերտ))(Western Armenia), routing the forces of the generals Shahin Vahmanzadegan and Shahraplakan. The Byzantines destroy their baggage train.
March 19, 625 AD: Battle of Uhud (Arabic: غزوة أحد Ġhazwat 'Uḥud): Muhammad retreats against the Quraish inhabitants of Mecca ( Saudi Arabia ), which they consider a victory.
625 AD: Byzantine–Sasanid War: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius marches with his forces westward, through the mountains of Corduene. In less than seven days, he bypasses Mount Ararat and captures the strategic fortresses of Amidaalong the Arsanias River, and Martyropolis on the upper Tigris (Sumerian: 𒁇𒄘𒃼 Idigna or Idigina; Akkadian: 𒁇𒄘𒃼 Idiqlat; Arabic: دجلة Dijlah [didʒlah]; Syriac: ܕܹܩܠܵܬ D (Murat River or Eastern Euphrates (Turkish: Murat Nehri, Armenian: Արածանի Aratsani)eqlaṯ; Armenian: Տիգրիս Tigris; Դգլաթ Dglatʿ; Hebrew: חידקל Ḥîddeqel, biblical Hiddekel; Turkish: Dicle; Kurdish: Dîcle, Dîjla دیجلە) in Mesopotamia. The Persian army in northern Mesopotamia withdraws westward across the Euphrates (Sumerian: 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Buranuna; Akkadian: 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Purattu; Arabic: الفرات al-Furāt; Syriac: ̇ܦܪܬ Pǝrāt; Armenian: Եփրատ: Yeprat; Hebrew: פרת Perat; Turkish: Fırat; Kurdish: Firat). Heraclius pursues into Cilicia, accompanied by a great train of booty.
625 AD: Byzantine-Sasanid War: Battle of Sarus: Heraclius is victorious in a Byzantine assault river crossing. The reinforced Persians under Shahrbaraz are defeated along the Sarus River, near Adana (modern Turkey). Heraclius recaptures Cappadocia (also Capadocia; Greek: Καππαδοκία, Kappadokía, from Old Persian: Katpatuka, Turkish: Kapadokya)(Historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey) and Pontus, and returns to Trapezus to spend the winter. Shahrbaraz (later briefly King of the Sasanid Persian Empire in 630 AD) retreats in good order, and is able to continue his advance through Asia Minor towards Constantinople.
626 AD: Siege of Constantinople: A horde of Avars, consisting of about 80,000 men (including large contingents of Slavs, Bulgars, and other "barbarians"), attack the walls of Constantinople. A small Persian army arrives on the Bosphorus, on the Asiatic side. The Theodosian Walls are stormed with the most up-to-date siege equipment, in the form of traction trebuchets. The Avars have also mobile armoured shelters (medieval 'sows') and siege towers; the latter are covered in hides for fire protection. The defense of the capital (12,000 well-trained Byzantine troops) is in the hands of Patriarch Sergius I and Bonus (magister militum).
July 31, 626 AD: The Avars and Persian allies under Shahrbaraz launch an attack along the entire length of the Theodosian Walls (about 5.7 kilometre); the main effort is concentrated against the central section, particurarly the low-lying mesoteichion. After a fierce infantry battle on the walls, the Byzantine army holds off many assaults on the city. Emperor Heraclius makes arrangements for a new army under his brother Theodore to operate against the Persians in western Anatolia, while he returns to his own army in Pontus.
August 7, 626 AD: In the waters of the Golden Horn (southern inlet of the Bosporus Strait), the Persian fleet is destroyed while ferrying reinforcements. The Avars, having suffer terrible losses, running short of food and supplies, burn their siege engines. They abandon the siege and retreat to the Balkan Peninsula. The Byzantines achieve a decisive victory at Blachernae, under the protection of the Church of the Virgin Mary.
626 AD: Byzantine-Persian War: Heraclius, his army reduced by campaigning to less than 30,000 men, is on the defensive in Pontus. Apparently he leaves a strong Byzantine garrison in Trapezus, and withdraws north-eastward along the Black Sea into Colchis (Georgian: კოლხეთი K'olkheti; Greek Κολχίς Kolkhís)(current day Western Georgia), where he halts the Persians by aggressive defensive-offensive operations along the Phasis River. By attracting the Persian army under Shahin Vahmanzadegan in Anatolia, he provides Theodore with the opportunity to defeat them. By the end of the summer he threatens the communication of the Persians at Chalcedon (modern Turkey).
626 AD: Heraclius invites the Croats, a Slavic tribe living in Galicia, Silesia, and Bohemia, to settle in Illyricum. They are given the land between the Drava River and the Adriatic Sea for ridding of Avars. The Serbs are allowed to move from their homeland north of the Carpathians to a territory east of the Croats. Heraclius asks Pope Honorius I to send missionaries to both groups.
Winter, 626 AD: Heraclius makes an alliance with Tong Yabghu Qaghan (also known as T'ung Yabghu, Ton Yabghu, Tong Yabghu Khagan, Tun Yabghu, and Tong Yabğu, Traditional Chinese 統葉護可汗, Simplified Chinese: 统叶护可汗, pinyinTǒngyèhù Kěhán, Wade-Giles: t'ung-yeh-hu k'o-han), ruler (Khagan) of the Western Turkic Khaganate (Onoq Khaganate (Chinese: 西突厥; pinyin: Xi tūjué)), for a joint invasion of the Persian Empire the following spring. He promises his daughter Eudoxia Epiphania, age 15, in marriage to Tong Yabghu and sends her under escort with wondrous gifts.
July 2, 626 AD: Li Shimin (李世民)(Prince Qin)(Life: 28 January 598 AD - 10 July 649 AD) travels to the Tang capital Chang'an (Xi'An) to bid farewell his younger brother Li Yuanji, who has been given command of a Chinese expedition against the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Hearing of a plot to murder him, he and a few supporters seize the northern entrance to the Emperor's palace. Li Shimin ambushes and eliminates his rival brothers Li Yuanji and Li Jiancheng, in the Xuanwu Gate Incident.
September 4, 626 AD: Founding Emperor Tang Gao Zu (Reign: 18 June 618 AD - 4 September 626 AD) abdicates in favor of his son Li Shimin after an 8-year reign. He passes the throne to him and Li Shimin becomes Emperor Tai Zong (Reign: 4 September 626 AD - 10 July 649 AD) of the Tang Dynasty.
626 AD: The Persian King Khosrau II plans an all-out effort against Constantinople. He returns to Anatolia with two armies of unknown size, presumably more than 50,000 men each. One of these (possibly commanded by Khosrau himself) is to contain Heraclius in Pontus; another under Shahin Vahmanzadegan is defeated by Theodore.
Spring, 627 AD: Byzantine-Sasanian War: Emperor Heraclius sweeps through southern Armenia with a 50,000-man expeditionary force, recapturing most of the Byzantine fortresses lost to the Persians ten and fifteen years earlier. The army of Shahrbaraz, still in Anatolia, is now cut off completely. Hearing from Byzantine agents (showing him letters) that King Khosrau II, dissatisfied with his failure to capture Constantinople, is planning to have him executed, he surrenders to Heraclius, refusing to join the Byzantine army against his ungrateful sovereign.
March 31, 627 AD: Battle of the Trench: Muhammad successfully withstands a siege for 27 days at Medina, by Quraish forces (10,000 men) from Mecca led by Abu Sufyan (Sakhr ibn Harb (Arabic: صخر بن حرب))(Life: 560 AD - 650 AD), whose allies, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, ultimately surrender to Muhammad.
627 AD: As agreed with the Byzantines in the previous year, the Western Turkic Khanate opens a second front against the Persians. The Third Perso-Turkic War erupts: The Göktürks (Old Turkic: 𐰜𐰇𐰛:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰, Kök Türük; Chinese: 突厥/تُكِئ; pinyin: Tūjué, Middle Chinese: *duət̚-kʉɐt̚, Dungan: Тўҗүә; Khotanese Saka: Ttūrka, Ttrūka; Old Tibetan: Drugu) and their Khazar allies (40,000 men) approach the Caspian Gates (The Gates of Alexander was a legendary barrier supposedly built by Alexander the Great in the Caucasus to keep the uncivilized barbarians of the north (typically through the Quran associated with Gog and Magog) from invading the land to the south. It is not certain they were built by Alexander, this was later inferred), and capture the Persian fortress at Derbent (modern Dagestan Republic of the Russian Federation). Heraclius marches to the upper Tigris and invades the Persian heartland, leaving the Khazars under Tong Yabghu Qaghan to continue the siege of Tbilisi (current day Capital of Georgia).
December 12, 627 AD: Battle of Nineveh: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius crosses the Great Zab River and defeats, in a feigned retreat, the Persian army (12,000 men) under Rhahzadh, near the ruins of Nineveh (Iraq). Although wounded, Heraclius refuses to leave the battlefield, and in a final cavalry charge personally kills the Persian general. In the following winter months of 627 & 628 Heraclius plunders the city palace of Dastgird ((Persian: دستگرد, also Romanized as Dastgird and Dastjerd))(in Isfahan Province, Iran) and gains tremendous riches (also recovering 300 captured Byzantine flags). He turns north-eastward to Caucasian Albania to rest his army. Khosrau II flees to the mountains of Susiana, to rally support for the defense of the Persian capital Ctesiphon (Greek: Κτησιφῶν; from Parthian or Middle Persian: tyspwn or tysfwn)(an ancient city located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of present-day Baghdad).
February 25, 628 AD: Khosrow II, the last great king of the Sasanian Empire, is overthrown by his son Kavadh II (Middle Persian: kwʾt' Kawād; New Persian: قباد Qobād or Qabād)(also known as Shērōē (also spelled Shīrūya, شیرویه in New Persian))(Life: 590 AD - 6 September 628 AD).
Spring, 628 AD: Byzantine-Sasanid War: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius issues an ultimatum for peace to King Khosrow II, but he refuses his generous terms. The war-weary Persians revolt against Khosrow's regime at Ctesiphon, and install his son Kavadh II on the throne on February 25. He puts his father to death and begins negotiations with Heraclius. Kavadh is forced to return all the territories conquered during the war. The Persians must give up all of the trophies they have captured, including the relic of the True Cross. Evidently there is also a large financial indemnity. Having accepted a peace agreement on his own terms, Heraclius returns in triumph to Constantinople.
Spring, 628 AD: Third Perso-Turkic War: The Western Göktürks, under their leader Tong Yabghu Qaghan, plunder Tbilisi (modern Georgia). The Persian defenders are executed or mutilated; Tong Yabghu appoints governors (tuduns) to manage various tribes under his overlordship.
628 AD: Muhammad, Islamic prophet, leads about 1,400 men on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where their passage is blocked by the members of the Quraysh Tribe. The Quraysh tribe and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce (Treaty of Hudaybiyyah).
628 AD: Muhammad's letters to world leaders explain the principles of the new monotheistic Muslim faith, as they will be contained in his book, the Quran. His Quranic Law, The Sharia enjoins women as well as men to obtain secular and religious educations. It forbids eating pork, domesticated donkey, and other flesh denied to Jews by Mosaic law.
628 AD: Indian astronomer Brahmagupta writes the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, an early, yet very advanced, mathematics book, including rules for computing with zero.
September 28, 628 AD: Ardashir III, age 7, succeeds his father Kavadh II as the twenty-fourth king of the Sasanian Empire, on the latter's death from plague.
Summer, 629 AD: Muhammad, Islamic prophet, succeeds in unifying all of the nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. He converts them to Islam and prepares an expedition against the Jews. In May / June the evolving Islamic Campaign sees the Battle of Khaybar: Muhammad and his followers defeat the Jews living in the fortified oasis at Khaybar, located 150 kilometers from Medina. Later, in September, the Battle of Mu'tah takes place: Muhammad fails to take the lands east of the Jordan River (also River Jordan; Hebrew: נְהַר הַיַּרְדֵּן Nahar ha-Yarden, Classical Syriac: ܢܗܪܐ ܕܝܘܪܕܢܢ, Arabic: نَهْر الْأُرْدُنّ Nahr al-Urdunn, Ancient Greek: Ιορδάνης, Iordànes), and is pushed back near Mu'tah by forces of the Ghassanid Arab Kingdom (Arabic: الغساسنة; al-Ghasāsinah, also Banū Ghassān "Sons of Ghassān").
April 27, 629 AD: (General) Shahrbaraz usurps the throne of the Sasanian Empire from Ardashir III, but is himself deposed forty days later by nobility in favour of Borandukht. Khosrow III briefly rules Khorasan in the confusion, until he is assassinated by the governor of the province.
Summer, 629 AD: Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist monk, sets out for India from the Tang Dynasty capital Chang'An ( Xi'An) on a legendary pilgrimage .
September 14, 629 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius enters Constantinople in triumph. In a ceremonial parade, accompanied by the relic of the True Cross, he is welcomed by the citizens and his son Heraclius Constantine .
September, 629 AD: After 15 years of occupation by the Sasanid Persians Jerusalem, the "Holy City", is reconquered by the Byzantines from the Persian Empire. The Byzantine-Sasanid war ends and a new "Golden Age" begins for the Byzantine Empire. Heraclius styles himself as Basileus, Greek word for "sovereign", and takes the ancient title of "King of Kings", after his victory over Persia .
Winter, 629 AD: Emperor Tai Zong of the Tang Dynasty launches a campaign against the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (Central Asia) driving his enemies away from the upper curve of the Yellow River (Huang He)(current day area of Hohhot and Baotou in the Inner-Mongolia Autonomous Region).
March 21, 630 AD: Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. He tries to promote Monothelitism ((from Greek μονοθελητισμός "doctrine of one will"), a particular teaching about how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus), which is rejected by the Christians. Heraclius issues a decree that all Jews must become Christian; a massacre follows around Jerusalem and in Galilee (Israel), some survivors fleeing to the Daraa area.
630 AD: Chorpan Tarkhan, general of the Khazars, invades and devastates Armenia. He defeats a Persian cavalry force (10,000 men) sent by General Shahrbaraz to repel the invasion and kills all of them.
April 27, 630 AD: King Ardashir III, age 9, is murdered after an 18 month reign. He is succeeded by Shahrbaraz who becomes ruler (shah) of the Sasanian Empire.
June 9, 630 AD: Shahrbaraz is killed and succeeded by Borandukht (also Boran (Middle Persian: ; Persian: پوراندخت (Purandokht)(Life: 590 AD - 628 or 631 AD), daughter of former king Khosrow II. She ascends the throne as 26th monarch of Persia. She was the first and one of only two women to rule the Sasanian Empire; the other was her sister and successor, Azarmidokht (Middle Persian: Āzarmīgdukht, Persian: آزرمیدخت)(Reign: 630 AD - 631).
630 AD: Illig Qaghan, ruler (khagan) of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, is captured by Li Jing during the Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks.
D ecember 11, 629 AD: Conquest of Mecca (Arabic: فتح مكة fatḥ makkah): Abandoning the 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyah (628 AD), inspired by Muhammad, the Prophet of the Religion of Peace, a Muslim army (10,000 men) marches on Mecca, which surrenders. Muhammad takes the city from the Quraysh and makes it the spiritual center of Islam (which it remains to this day).
631 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius appoints Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, with power to act as viceroy (dioikesis) of Egypt. He begins a 10-year persecution against the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Christians. Benjamin I, Coptic patriarch of Alexandria, escapes during the persecutions of his fellow Christians and hides in the monastery of St. Macarius (Upper Egypt).
January, 630 AD: Battle of Hunayn (Arabic: غَـزوة حُـنـيـن, Ghazwat Hunayn): Muhammad defeats the Bedouin tribe of Hawazin (12,000 men) in a valley, on one of the roads leading to Ta'if (Western Arabia).
February 115, 630 AD: Siege of Ta'if: The armies led by Prophet Muhammad begin to besiege Ta'if and brings battering rams and catapults to suppress the fortress city, but is unable to penetrate it. The siege went on for half a month with little change and soldiers became impatient. Following consultation with advisers and a prophetic dream, Muhammad ended the siege and withdrew his forces.
631 AD: Azarmidokht (daughter of king Khosrau II) succeeds her sister Borandukht, as monarch of the Persian Empire. Azarmidokht is succeeded after a few months reign by the usurper Khosrau IV, who becomes new ruler (shah) of Persia. He is however killed after a few days of reign.
631 AD: Hormizd VI proclaims himself king in Nisibis (Turkey). He seizes the throne and will reign until 632.
631 AD: On his pilgrimage to India, Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist monk, crosses the Indus River (locally called Sindhū) at Hund (today a small village in Swabi district (Pashto: سوابۍ,Urdu: صوابی) in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP or KPK; Urdu: خیبر پختونخوا; Pashto: خیبر پښتونخوا), Pakistan) and travels to Kashmir ("Heaven on Earth") in northwestern India (approximate date).
631 AD: Emperor Tai Zong sends envoys to the Xueyantuo (薛延陀 ; Seyanto, Se-yanto, Se-Yanto) or Syr-Tardush), vassals of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, bearing gold and silk in order to obtain the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners, who were captured during the transition from the Sui to the Tang Dynasty from the northern frontier. The embassy succeeds in freeing 80,000 men and women, who are safely returned to China.
631 AD: Tang Emperor Tai Zong establishes a new Daoist abbey, out of gratitude for Daoist priests who had apparently cured the crown prince of an illness.
631 AD: Death of Rayhana (Rayhāna bint Zayd (Arabic: ريحانة بنت زيد)), Jewish woman, slave and slave of Muhammad and later after her conversion to Islam his wife. She was buried in Jannat al-Baqi cemetery.
March 19 (estimated), 632 AD: Muhammad makes his final sermon to the Muslims in the Uranah valley of Mount Arafat (Arabic: جبل عرفات transliterated Jabal ‘Arafāt), to the Muslims who has accompanied him for the Hajj (pilgrimage). Shias believe this to be the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor.
Ju ne 8, 632 AD: Muhammad dies at Medina at the age of 63, after an illness and fever. According to Shias, he was succeeded by Ali ibn Abi Talib (cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad); according to Sunnis, he was succeeded by his first convert (outside his family), father-in-law and most senior companion Abu Bakr (Abū Bakr aṣ-Ṣiddīq ‘Abdallāh bin Abī Quḥāfah (Arabic: أبو بكر الصديق عبد الله بن أبي قحافة)(Life: ca. 573 AD - 23 August 634 AD). Abu Bakr who becomes the first caliph (viceregent of the messenger of God). He establishes the Rashidun Caliphate until 661.
Ju ne 16, 632 AD: Yazdegerd III (literally meaning "made by God"; New Persian: یزدگرد; Izdegerdes in classical sources), age 8, ascends to the throne as King (Shah) of the Persian Empire. He becomes the 38th and last ruler of the Sasanid Dynasty (modern Iran), ruling from 16 June 632 AD to 651 AD .
January 27, 632 AD: An annular eclipse of the sun occurs.
632 AD: Xuanzang, Chinese traveler on his pilgrimage and quest for knowledge to India, writes about two huge statues of Buddha carved out of a mountainside in the Bamiyan Valley (current day Hazarajat region, central Afghanistan).
633 AD: Ridda Wars ((Arabic: حروب الردة), also known as the Wars of Apostasy): Abu Bakr, the first Caliph (khalifa) of the Rashidun Caliphate, after the death of Muhammad, launches a military campaign against the Arab tribe of Kindah, which inhabits the region of Najran ( Yemen).
YouTube Video: Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602 to 628 Documentary, by Kings and Generals. See the main events of the conflict played out.
March 18, 633 AD: The Arabian Peninsula is united under the central authority of Abu Bakr. This sets the stage for the Islamic conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanid Dynasty (224 AD - 651 AD).
April, 633 AD: A Muslim army (18,000 men) led by Khalid ibn al-Walid (according to Shia muslims the appointed successor of Muhammad) invades Mesopotamia. He wins decisive victories in the Battle of Chains (also Battle of Sallasil (Arabic: معركة ذات السلاسل Dhat al-Salasil)) in Kazima (Today Kuwait) and Battle of River (also Battle of Al Madhar)( Iraq).
May, 633 AD: Battle of Walaja (Arabic: معركة الولجة): The Rashidun Caliphate army under Khalid defeats the Persians and their Arab Christian allies. The Persian army is at least three times the size.
May, 633 AD: Battle of Ullais (Arabic: معركة أليس): Forces of the Rashidun Caliphate under Khalid defeat an entire Persian army (reportedly 70,000 men) near the river Euphrates. Khalid besieges the city of Hira (Arabic: الحيرة al-Ḥīrah, Syriac: ܚܝܪܬܐ Ḥīrtā)(Today an ancient lost city situated south of what is now Kufa in south-central Iraq).
May, 633 AD: In the Siege of Hira: The Muslim Arabs (15,000 men) under Khalid ibn al-Walid attack the fortress city of Hira. After a brief fight the citizens surrender, and bring gifts to Khalid.
July, 633 AD: Siege of Anbar (Arabic: معركة الأنبار): A Muslim Arab army under Khalid besieges the fortress city of Anbar (Arabic: الأنبار ; Middle Persian word for "granaries")(approx. 80 miles from ancient Babylon) on the east bank of the Euphrates River. The Persian governor surrenders and is allowed to retire. Subsequently, there follows the Battle of Ein ut Tamr (Arabic: معركة عين التمر): at which time the Muslim army attacks a Persian frontier post located west of Anbar. The Arab Christian auxiliaries are overrun and surrender.
August, 633 AD: Battle of Dumat Al-Jandal (Arabic: دومة الجندل): A Muslim army (10,000 men) under Khalid ibn al-Walid defeats the rebel Arab Christians at Dumat Al-Jandal (in current day Al Jawf Province, north-western Saudi Arabia).
November, 633 AD: Khalid coordinates successful night attacks against the Arab Christians in the Battle of Muzayyah (Arabic: معركة المصيخ), Battle of Saniyy (Arabic: معركة الثني), and Battle of Zumail (Arabic: معركة الزميل).
Around 633 AD: In Tang Dynasty China, Feng Shui scholar, astronomer, mathematician and historian Li Chung Feng (Traditional Chinese: 李淳風; Simplified Chinese: 李淳风; also Li Chunfeng) builds a first (known) celestial globe in East Asia. In the west, the sphericity of the Earth was established by Greek astronomy in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.
634 AD: The Tuyuhun Kingdom is invaded by Chinese forces under Li Jing ( Tang Dynasty) during Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tuyuhun, resulting in the murder of their leader (Khan) Murong Fuyun (Chinese:慕容伏允 , formal title Busabo Khan (步薩鉢可汗)(Reign: 597 AD - 635 AD) in 635.
634 AD: Tang Emperor Tai Zong orders the construction of the Daming Palace (Simplified Chinese: 大明宫 ; Traditional Chinese: 大明宮 ; "Palace of Great Brilliance" ) in Chang'An (Xi'An) on the Longshou Plateau in the north of the city. The Palace will serve as the Imperial Palace of the Tang Emperors of China for 220 successive years. He builds the summer palace for his retired father, Emperor Gao Zu, as an act of filial piety.
YouTube Video: Documentary - History of the Daming Imperial Palace of the Tang Dynasty in Chang'An (Xi'An).
February 4, 634 AD: Battle of Dathin (Arabic: داثن): Rashidun forces led by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (Arabic: يزيد بن أبي سفيان, translit. Yazīd bin Abī Sufyān)(earlier a companion of Muhammad) defeat the Christian Arabs around Gaza. The Muslim victory is celebrated by the
local Jews, who have been a persecuted minority within the Byzantine Empire.
634 AD: The Rashidun Caliphate starts the Islamic conquest of the Byzantine Empire, when Muslim forces under Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (Abū ‘Ubaydah ‘Āmir ibn ‘Abdillāh ibn al-Jarāḥ (Arabic: أبو عبيدة عامر بن عبدالله بن الجراح)(Life: 583 AD - 639 AD) invade the Levant. Khalid sets out for Syria from Al-Hirah (Arabic: الحيرة al-Ḥīrah, Syriac: ܚܝܪܬܐ Ḥīrtā)(Ancient city situated south of Kufa in central Iraq), taking with him half his army, about 8,000 strong.
June, 634 AD: Having conquered Tadmur in Syria, the Rashidun Caliphate army sets out for the Al-Qaryatayn (Arabic: القريتين, also spelled Karyatayn, Qaratin or Cariatein) in central Syria. Battle of al-Qaryatayn: The Muslim Arabs under Khalid defeat the Ghassanids (Ghassanid (Arab) Kingdom (Arabic: الغساسنة; al-Ghasāsinah, also Banū Ghassān "Sons of Ghassān")) at Al-Qaryatayn, after the inhabitants resist his proposals. His army conquers and plunders the city, before proceeding to capture other towns in the area.
June, 634 AD: Emperor Heraclius, ill, infirm, and unpopular with the Eastern Orthodox Church, is unable to personally lead the Byzantine army to resist the Muslim conquest of the Levant. He sends his brother Theodore (Latin: Theodorus, Greek: Θεόδωρος)(Life: Ca. 610 AD - 636 AD) to assemble forces to retake the newly won Muslim territories. Monophysites and Jews throughout Syria welcome the Arab invaders, as they are discontent with Byzantine rule.
April 24, 634 AD: Battle of Marj Rahit: A Muslim Arab army under Khalid defeats the Byzantine forces (15,000 men) and their Ghassanid allies. After the battle he sends a mounted column to the outskirts of Damascus, to plunder the region.
June-July, 634 AD: Battle of Bosra: Muslim forces under Khalid besiege the Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison (12,000 men) at Bosra (Arabic: بصرى, translit. Buṣrā)(also spelled Bostra, Busrana, Bozrah, Bozra and officially known Busra al-Sham (Arabic: بصرى الشام, translit. Buṣrā al-Shām, Turkish: Busra el-Şam) in southern Syria. After a few days the fortress city surrenders; Khalid imposes on the inhabitants a payment of tribute.
July 30 (or beginning of August), 634 AD: Battle of Ajnadayn (Arabic: معركة أجنادين): Byzantine forces (9,000 men) under Theodore are defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate near Beit Shemesh (near Beit Guvrin in modern-day Israel). Heraclius, who is in Emesa (Greek: Greek: Ἔμεσα , Emesa, or Emisa)(Today: Homs ; Arabic: حمص / ALA-LC: Ḥimṣ), flees to Antioch on the Orentes (Ancient Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, translit. Antiókheia he epi Oróntou; also Syrian Antioch) upon hearing news of the battle's outcome.
August 23, 634 AD: The first Islamic Caliph Abu Bakr dies at Medina and is succeeded by Umar I (Arabic: عمر بن الخطاب ʻUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb [ˈʕomɑr-, ˈʕʊmɑr ɪbn alxɑtˤˈtˤɑːb], "Umar, Son of Al-Khattab")(Life: 584 AD - 3 November 644 CAD), who becomes the second Caliph (khalifah) of the Rashidun Caliphate. During his rule Umar conquers Syria, Persia, and Egypt in a "Holy War".
S eptember 19, 634 AD: Siege of Damascus: Muslim Arabs under Khalid conquer Damascus (current day Capital of Syria) as the first major city of the Byzantine Empire. Damascan refugees are given a guarantee of safety to retreat to Antioch .
S eptember, 634 AD: Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj (Arabic: معركة مرج الديباج): A Byzantine convoy of Damascan refugees (10,000 men) is slaughtered by a Muslim army near Antioch. The Mobile Guard (elite light cavalry) captures a great amount of brocade.
635 AD: Emperor Heraclius makes an alliance with Kubrat, ruler (Khagan) of Great Bulgaria, to break the power of the Avars on the Balkan Peninsula . and at the same time keep options open for the defence of the southern borders against the rising of the Rashidun Islamic Caliphate.
January, 635 AD: Battle of Fahl (or Pelia):(Arabic: معركة فحل) The Rashidun army, (30,000 men) led by Khalid ibn al-Walid (known as the "Drawn Sword of God"), defeats the Byzantine forces led by Theodore Trithyrius (also Theodore the Sacellarius (Saqalar)), at Pella in the Jordan Valley (Jordan).
January, 635 AD: Gaza is conquered by the Muslim Arabs led by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Arabic: عمرو بن العاص )(Life: ca. 585 AD - 6 January 664 AD). It becomes the first city in Palestine developed into a centre of Islamic law.
635 AD: First Christian missionaries arrive in China: Alopen, bishop of the Assyrian Church of the East, introduces Nestorian Christianity to the Tang Dynasty.
635 AD: Yao Silian, Chinese historian, completes his Book of Liang (Liáng Shū); simplified Chinese: 梁书 ; traditional Chinese: 梁書). It contains the history of the Liang Dynasty described in 24 separate histories (canon). It contains the history of the Liang Dynasty (502 AD - 557 AD, one of the three southern dynasties from the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (Chinese: 南北朝; pinyin: Nán-Běi Cháo))(420 AD - 589 AD), and various descriptions of countries to the east of China. One of its best-known passages is the description by the monk Hui Shen (慧深) of the country of Fusang, 20,000 li east of China
June 25, 635 AD: Death of former Emperor Tang Gaozu (唐高祖)(Given name: Li Yuan), founder of the Tang Dynasty.
636 AD: Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor Heraclius assembles a large army (100,000 men) consisting of contingents of Byzantines, Slavs, Franks, Georgians, Armenians, and Christian Arabs. He establishes a base at Yaqusah (Today Umm Qais or Qays (Arabic: أم قيس, lit. "Mother of Qais"))(near Gadara (Hebrew: גדרה, Gadʾara, or גדר, Gader; Greek: Γάδαρα Gádara) in northern Jordan), close to the edge of the Golan Heights, protecting the vital main road from Egypt to Damascus. The base is protected by deep valleys and precipitous cliffs, well supplied with water and grazing.
Summer, 636 AD: Heraclius summons a church assembly at Antioch and scrutinises the situation. He accepts the argument that Byzantine disobedience to God is to blame for the Christian disaster in Syria. Heraclius leaves for Constantinople with the words, ‘Peace be with you Syria - what a beautiful land you will be for your enemy’.
August 15-20, 636 AD: Battle of Yarmouk: In engagements along the Yarmouk River (Arabic: نهر اليرموك, Nahr Al-Yarmuk, or شريعة المناذرة, Shariat el Menadhirah; Hebrew: נהר הירמוך, Nahar HaYarmukh; Latin: Hieromices), Muslim forces (some 25,000 men) of the Rashidun Caliphate led by Khalid ibn al-Walid decisively defeat the armies of the Byzantine Empire, effectively completing the Muslim conquest of Syria. It will be regarded as one of the most decisive battles in military history, marking the first great wave of Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad.
636 AD: The city of Basra (modern Iraq) is founded on the Shatt al-Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf. The port will become a major trading center for commodities from Arabia, India, and Persia.
636 AD: The historical texts of the Book of Northern Qi (Chinese: 北齊書, pinyin Běi Qí Shū), Book of Chen (Chen Shu (Chén Shū) ; simplified Chinese: 陈书 ; traditional Chinese: 陳書), and Book of Sui (Suí Shū ; simplified Chinese: 隋书 ; traditional Chinese: 隋書) are compiled in China during the Tang Dynasty.
November 16-19, 636 AD: Battle of al-Qādisiyyah: The Muslim Arab army defeats the Persian forces under Rostam Farrokhzād (Persian: رستم فرخزاد), at Al-Qādisiyyah (Arabic: القادسية)(Southern Mesopotamia).
March, 637 AD: Siege of Ctesiphon: The Rashidun army (15,000 men) under Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas occupies the Persian capital of Ctesiphon (Greek: Κτησιφῶν; from Parthian or Middle Persian: tyspwn or tysfwn), after a two-month siege. King Yazdegerd III flees with the imperial treasure eastward into Media. Muslim forces conquer the Persian provinces as far as Khuzestan (modern Iran).
637 AD: Chang'An (Xi'An), capital of the Tang Dynasty (China), becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Ctesiphon, capital of Persia.
April, 637 AD: Battle of Jalula: Muslim Arabs defeat the Persian forces (20,000 men) under Farrukhzad at the Diyala River (a tributary of the Tigris River in northern Iraq). The cities Tikrit (Arabic: تكريت Tikrīt, Classical Syriac: ܬܓܪܝܬ Tagriṯ) and Mosul (Arabic: الموصل al-Mawṣil, Kurdish: مووسڵ, Syriac: ܡܘܨܠ, translit. Māwṣil) are captured, completing the conquest of Mesopotamia. The region west of the Zagros Mountains is annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate.
April, 637 AD: Siege of Jerusalem: The Rashidun army (20,000 men), led by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Arabic: عمرو بن العاص)(Life: ca. 585 –AD - 6 January 664 AD), conquers Jerusalem after a six-month siege. The Byzantine garrison surrenders to Caliph Umar I, who is invited by Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Arabic: كَنِيسَةُ ٱلْقِيَامَة Kanīsatu al-Qiyāmah; Greek: Ναὸς τῆς Ἀναστάσεως Naos tes Anastaseos; Armenian: Սուրբ Հարության տաճար Surb Harut'yan tač̣ar; Latin: Ecclesia Sancti Sepulchri; Hebrew: כנסיית הקבר, Knesiyat ha-Kever; also called the Church of the Resurrection or Church of the Anastasis by Orthodox Christians)). Umar declines, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status, and turn the Christian holy site into a mosque.
June, 637 AD: Battle of Hazir (also Ma'arakah al-Haadhir (Arabic: معركة الحاضر)): Muslim Arab forces (17,000 men) led by Khalid ibn al-Walid defeat the Byzantine army at Al-Hadher (Arabic: الحاضر) near Qinnasrin (Mount Simeon District, Aleppo, Northern Syria). The cities of Beirut (Arabic: بيروت Bayrūt, French: Beyrouth) and Tyre (Arabic: صور Ṣūr; Phoenician: 𐤑𐤓 Ṣūr; Hebrew: צוֹר Tzór; Tiberian Hebrew צֹר Ṣōr; Akkadian: 𒀫𒊒 Ṣurru; Greek: Τύρος Týros; Turkish: Sur; Latin: Tyrus; Armenian: Տիր Tir; French: Tyr)(Today: district Capital of South Governate, Lebanon) are captured by Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan after a short siege.
637 AD: King Songtsän Gampo builds the first palace on the site of the Potala Palace (Tibetan: ཕོ་བྲང་པོ་ཏ་ལ་, Wylie: pho brang Potala) in Lhasa ( Tibet ). This Palace was known as the Treasure Palace on (the) Red Hill. Only parts of this original palace, the Darma King Cave and Guanyin Hall, remain today as parts of the existing Potala Palace.
October, 637 AD: Siege of Aleppo: Muslim Arabs under Khalid ibn al-Walid conquer the Byzantine stronghold Aleppo (Arabic: ﺣﻠﺐ / ALA-LC: Ḥalab)(today a major city in north-western Syria); the large walled city surrenders after a four-month siege. A column of troops under Malik al-Ashtar (Arabic: مالك الأشتر)(also known as Malik bin al-Harith al-Nakha'i) is sent to take Azaz (Arabic: أعزاز A‘zāz, Hurrian: Azazuwa, Medieval Greek: Αζάζιον, translit. Azázion, Neo-Assyrian: Ḫazazu, Old Aramaic: Ḥzz) to the north-north-west of Aleppo.
October, 637 AD: Battle of the Iron Bridge: Rashidun forces under Khalid ibn al-Walid defeat the Byzantine army and Christian Arabs near Antioch, at the Orontes River (Ancient Greek: Ὀρόντης) or Asi (Arabic: العاصي, ‘Āṣī; Turkish: Asi). It marks the complete annexation of Syria into the Rashidun Caliphate.
638 AD: The Islamic calendar is introduced by Abu Musa al-Asha'ari. He convinces Umar I to make notes of an era for Muslims.
638 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius creates a buffer zone (or no man's land) in the heartland of Asia Minor. In the mountainous terrain of Anatolia, the Byzantine forces develop a system of defensive guerrilla warfare. The strategy is known as ‘shadowing warfare’, as it avoids battle with major Muslim invaders, and instead attacks raiding parties on their return when they are laden with booty, captured livestock or prisoners.
July 4, 638 AD: Heraklonas (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος; Latin: Flavius Constantinus Heraclius (Heraclianus)), age 12, son of Heraclius, obtains (through the influence of his mother Martina) the title of Augustus. This brings him in rivalry with his elder half-brother Constantine (Life: 626 AD - 641 AD). Although unknown to the public at the time, Emperor Heraclius also specified in his will that both of his stepsons should rule jointly upon his death. Heraclius also specified that his wife, Martina, was to be called "Mother and Empress" in so far as she might have influence at court as well.
638 AD: Byzantine Emperor Heraclius issues his Ekthesis (Ecthesis ; Greek: Ἔκθεσις), espousing the Monothelete doctrine (that there is only one will in Christ), and setting it forth as the official doctrine of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Though intended as a method of healing the various rifts over doctrinal matters within the (eastern) Christian church, the Ekthesis is vigorously opposed, notably by Maximus the Confessor.
638 AD: The Tibetan Empire under King Songtsan Gampo, seeking a alliance through marriage with Tang Dynasty China, launches an attack on Songzhou (松州)(in current day Sichuan Province, China (P.R.C.). This attack is counted as the first military conflict between the Tibetan Empire and the Chinese Tang Dynasty in world history. The attack is ultimately repelled by Tang Dynasty forces who conduct a successful night time raid on the Tibetans, leading to their withdrawal. There after Songtsen Gampo applies a different strategy. After offering an apology to the Tang Emperor Taizong, he asks for the hand of a Tang Princess in wedding. After some time negotiations (two to three years) are ultimately followed by the marriage of the Chinese Princess Wencheng, a distant niece of the Tang Emperor, to Tibetan ruler Songtsän Gampo. Today, the wedding of this unimportant princess is often referred to in Chinese propaganda stories and even cited as proof as Tibet becoming Chinese at that time. (There is no information available on Princess Wencheng and some historians doubt whether she ever existed) After the wedding ( allegedly in 641 AD) Tibetans remain a powerful military threat to Tang China, although the peace lasts for the remaining reigns of Songtsan Gampo (Life: 569 or 605 AD - 649 AD) and Emperor Taizong (Life: January 28, 598 AD - July 10, 649 AD).
638 AD: Arab-Byzantine War: The invading Rashidun Caliphate army under command of Khalid ibn al-Walid moves into Anatolia, conquering (without strong Byzantine resistance) the cities of Kahramanmaraş (until 1973 Maraş), Caesarea Cappadociae, Sebastia (Sivas)(Latin and Greek: Sebastia, Sebastea, Sebasteia, Sebaste, Σεβάστεια, Σεβαστή; Armenian: Սեբաստիա), and Malatya (Armenian: Մալաթիա Malat'ya; Kurdish: Meletî ; Classical Syriac: ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; Ottoman Turkish: مالاتيا)(west of the Taurus Mountains). Arab forces march into Armenia, where they capture the cities Edessa (Ancient Greek: Ἔδεσσα; Arabic: الرها ar-Ruhā; Turkish: Şanlıurfa; Kurdish: Riha)(Today, Urfa (in Şanlıurfa Province in the Southeast Anatolia Region of Turkey) and Amida (Greek: Ἄμιδα, Syriac: ܐܡܝܕ, Kurdish: Amed)(current day location of Diyarbakır, Diyarbakır Province, Southeastern Anatolia Region, Turkey) up to the Ararat plain .
Autum, 638 AD: The Arabian forces under Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah storm Caesarea Maritima ((Greek: Παράλιος Καισάρεια Parálios Kaisáreia), also known as Caesarea Palestinae), capital of Byzantine Palestine, and effect their final capture of Ascalon (modern Israel). Caliph Umar I stops the Muslim invasion, and appoints Abu Ubaidah governor of Syria .
Autum, 638 AD: Umar I dismisses Khalid ibn al-Walid after the conquest of Syria, owing to his ever-growing fame and influence. He wants the Muslims to know that victory come from God, not his general. The Persian Empire (including Bactria, Caucasus, and Makran) is annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate .
Autum, 638 AD: Abu Musa Abd Allah ibn Qays al-Ash'ari, better known as Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, companion (sahabah) of Muhammad, establishes Hafar Al-Batin (Arabic: حفر الباطن Ḥafar al-Bāṭin), located in the northeastern region of the Arabian Peninsula. He orders the digging for new wells, along this desert route that Muslims travel from Iraq to Mecca for the Hajj (pilgrimage) .
639 AD: Arab–Byzantine War: The Rashidun army (4,000 men), under the command of 'Amr ibn al-'As, invades Byzantine Egypt. They capture the strategic town of Pelusium (Nile Delta) after a two-month siege. Arab reinforcements led by Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Arabic: الزبير بن العوام بن خويلد)(Life: 594 AD -656 AD) are sent from Medina to assist Amr's army. The losses incurred by the Muslims are ameliorated by Sinai Bedouins, tribes of Rashida and Lakhm; they join the invaders in conquering Egypt .
639 AD: Hormuzan, Persian satrap of Susiana (vassal of the Rashidun Caliphate), revolts against the Muslims and raids Mesopotamia. Arab forces under Abu Musa al-Asha'ari destroy Susa (Persian: شوش Šuš; [ʃuʃ]; Hebrew: שׁוּשָׁן Šušān; Greek: Σοῦσα [ˈsuːsa]; Syriac: ܫܘܫ Šuš; Old Persian Çūšā)(Current day Shush, Shush County, Khuzestan Province, Iran) in the lower Zagros Mountains (Persian: کوههای زاگرس; Kurdish: چیاکانی زاگرۆس).
639 AD: Plague of Emmaus (Arabic: طاعون عمواس, ṭāwiʿna ʻimwas transliterated): An epidemic disease (probably Bubonic Plague) breaks out in Emmaus (Imwas) in Palestine. It strikes the city and the military camps of the Muslim Arabs, killing most of its population (probably estimated 25,000 people) among whom several loyal companions of the by then deceased Muhammad.
639 AD: An unsuccessful revolt of Prince Kürşat (of the Eastern Turks) breaks out in China. His attempt to arrest the Tang Emperor Taizong and so be able to buy the freedom of his fellow Turkmen fails (many of whom settled south of the Yellow River (Huang He) after subjection to the Tang Throne becoming vassals). He is then executed.
639 AD: In what today is Mongolia, The Xueyantuo (Chinese:薛延陀 ; Seyanto, Se-yanto, Se-Yanto; also Syr-Tardush) assaults the Chinese-conquered vassal of Eastern Tujue. Although simultaneously fighting in Korea against Goguryeo, Emperor Tai Zong commissions his famous general Li Shiji to fend off attacks in the campaign against Xueyantuo.
640 AD: Emperor Taizong of Tang begins the military campaigns against the Western Regions states in the Tarim Basin. General Hou Junji captures the kingdom of Gaochang ((Chinese: 高昌; pinyin: Gāochāng; Old Uyghur: قۇچۇ, Qocho), also called Karakhoja, Qara-hoja, Kara-Khoja, or Karahoja (قاراغوجا in Uyghur))(Today ruined city some 30 kilometres south east of Turpan), to solidify Chinese rule in Central Asia. It is the beginning of the reopening of the Silk Road to Central Asia as occurred during the rule of the Chinese Tang Dynasty.
640 AD: Nestorian missionaries build the first Christian Monastery in China. It is said to have included the Daqin Pagoda in Chang'An (大秦塔)(Today located in Zhouzhi County, Xi'An City Prefecture, Shaanxi Province). Daqin is the name for the Roman Empire or the Near East. Still standing today, the seven-storeyed octagonal brick pagoda is about 32 meters high. Each side of the first storey measures 4.3 meters. Since the Pagoda is only first mentioned in scriptures in 1064, when the Chinese poet Su Shi visited it and wrote a well-known poem about it, "Daqin Temple", the claim that the structure represents a Nestorian Church is highly controversial and cannot be considered proven as fact. His younger brother Su Zhe also wrote an "echoing" poem referring to the monks at the temple. An earthquake severely damaged the pagoda in 1556 and it was finally abandoned. Due to the earthquake, many of the underground chambers of the complex are no longer reachable.
YouTube Video: Nestorian Stele Monument - Assyrian Church of the East in China by Martin Palmer.
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China Report - Map o/t Taklamakan Desert & Tarim River Basin
A Satellite Image Map of the entire Taklamakan Desert and the Tarim River Basin in Xinjiang-Autonomous Region of Western China.
Map gives explanation and backgrounds to Local Geography, the Flow of the Tarim River from the Pamir Mountains in the West to Lop Nur (Dry) in the East, ancient Oasis Cities of the Tarim Basin and Taklamakan Desert, the North and South Routes of the Silk Road in this Area, Past and Current Climate and Historic Backgrounds.
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Asia Report - Map of Karakoram Highway / China-Pakistan Mountain Highway
May, 640 AD: Siege of Babylon Fortress: The Rashidun army lays siege to Babylon Fortress (Arabic: حصن بابليون; Coptic: ⲡⲁⲃⲓⲗⲱⲛ or Ⲃⲁⲃⲩⲗⲱⲛ) in the Nile Delta (near Cairo). The next two months' fighting remain inconclusive, the Byzantines having the upper hand by repulsing every Muslim assault.
July 6, 640 AD: Battle of Heliopolis: The Muslim Arab army (15,000 men) under 'Amr ibn al-'As (Arabic: عمرو بن العاص) defeats the Byzantine forces near Heliopolis (Greek: Hēlioúpolis (Ἡλιούπολις), meaning "City of the Sun"(Egypt))(a now lost city). Amr divides his troops into three parts, surrounding the Byzantines.
December 21, 640 AD: Muslim Arabs capture Babylon after a seven-month siege; during a night assault Arab warriors open the city gates. The Thebaid region (Upper Egypt) is annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate.
February 11, 641 AD: Emperor Heraclius, age 65, dies of dropsy at Constantinople after a 31-year reign. He reorganized the imperial administration, but lost Armenia, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and much of Mesopotamia to the Muslim Arabs. Heraclius is succeeded by his sons Constantine III and Heraklonas.
May, 641 AD: Constantine III, age 29, dies of tuberculosis after a four-month reign, leaving his half-brother Heraklonas sole emperor. Rumors spread that Constantine has been poisoned by Heraclius's second wife (and niece) Martina.
September, 641 AD: The Byzantine Senate turns against Martina and her son Heraklonas, who are both mutilated and exiled to the island of Rhodes. Supported by general Valentinus (Greek: Οὐαλεντῖνος/Βαλεντῖνος), Constantine's son Constans II, age 10, succeeds to the throne.
Fall, 641 AD: Constans II establishes a new civil-military defensive organisation, based upon geographical military district. Byzantine forces maintain the frontier along the line of the Taurus Mountains (Southern Turkey).
November 8, 641 AD: Siege of Alexandria: Muslim Arabs under 'Amr ibn al-'As capture the important port city of Alexandria (Arabic: الإسكندرية al-ʾIskandariyya; Egyptian Arabic: إسكندرية Eskendria; Coptic: Ⲁⲗⲉⲝⲁⲛⲇⲣⲓⲁ; Ⲣⲁⲕⲟⲧⲉ Alexandria; Rakotə) after a fourteen-month siege. Byzantine officials formally capitulate to Amr, turning the city over to Arab hands.
641 AD: The city of Fustat ((Arabic: الفسطاط al-Fusţāţ, Coptic: ⲫⲩⲥⲧⲁⲧⲱⲛ), also Fostat, Al Fustat, Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr)(later Cairo) is founded in Egypt. It becomes the first capital of Egypt under Muslim rule.
641 AD: Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (China) instigates a civil war in the Western Turkic Khaganate (or Onoq Khaganate (Chinese: 西突厥; pinyin: Xi tūjué), by supporting Isbara Yabghu Qaghan (full title: Yǐpíshābōluóyèhùkĕhàn 乙毗沙钵罗叶护可汗, Personal name: Ashina Baobu 阿史那薄布), who was a Khagan of one of the three Nushibi factions of the Khaganate. Having been acknowledged as Khagan by Tang Emperor Taizong and
642 AD: Battle of Nahāvand (also Nihāvand or Nahāwand) (Arabic: معركة نهاوند, Persian: نبرد نهاوند): The Rashidun army (30,000 men) under Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas defeats the Persians at Nahāvand (modern Iran). The Persian cavalry, full of confidence, mounts an ill-prepared attack. The Arabs retreat to a safe area, where they outmanoeuvre and destroy the Persians in a narrow mountain valley.
642 AD: Emperor Constans II marries Fausta, daughter of Valentinus, a general of Armenian origin. He proclaims her Augusta, and appoints his father-in-law to commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army. Valentinus is allowed to wear the imperial purple, and becomes the most powerful man in the Byzantine Empire.
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A 2nd Schematic Map of the Silk Road during the Roman Age. In 30 BC the Roman Empire started trading with India, which was already well known from the Conquest of Alexander the Great (+/- 330 BC). In the following 6 centuries the West would Trade with India and indirectly also with China through the Silk Road. The Silk Road only lost its Value after the European Age of Discovery and the Establishment of Maritime Trade Routes with India (16Th Century) and later China.
counting on the Tang for military support (in return for parts of the Tarim River Basin), Isbara Yabghu Qaghan sent out his governors to the Tarim Basin, Tashkent, Samarkand and Bactria to assert his rule. However, he was soon killed by men following orders of Yukuk Shad (full title: Irbis Dulu Qaghan, Chinese: 乙毗咄陆可汗) of the competing Dulu faction in 641.
642 AD: Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty issues a decree throughout China, that increases the punishment for men who deliberately inflict injuries upon themselves (most commonly breaking their own legs) in order to avoid military conscription. This decree is an effort to eradicate this practice that has grown as a trend since the time of the rebellion against the Sui Dynasty.
642 AD: Tang Dynasty Emperor Taizong further undermines the political situation in the Western Turkic Khaganate by supporting a revolt by Turkic tribes against the rebellious Yukuk Shad (full title: Irbis Dulu Qaghan, Chinese: 乙毗咄陆可汗) of the (Dulu faction of the) Western Turkic Khaganate. Although officially ruler of the northern half (roughly) of the two parts of the territory of the Western Turkic Khanate, the Irbis Dulu Kaghan had ordered rain into the southern territories ruled by Nushibi faction and also territories which by that time had been absorbed by the Tang Dynasty (Tang's Yi Prefecture (伊州)) although the latter raids had been repelled by Tang Armies led by general Guo Xiaoke (郭孝恪). Following internal clashes and having faced the newly created opposing Irbis Sheguy khagan (who had been empowered with Taizong's support) Yukuk Shad (full title: Irbis Dulu Qaghan, Chinese: 乙毗咄陆可汗) is forced to flee to Kunduz (current day Afghanistan) and stays in control of this single city until his death in 653 AD.
642 AD: creation of the earliest surviving dated Arabic-language papyrus (PERF 558), found in Heracleopolis (Egypt), and the earliest known Arabic text with diacritical marks is written .
642 AD: Arabs begin construction of the Mosque of Amr (Amr ibn al-As (Arabic: جامع عمرو بن العاص)) at Fustat (Cairo), it is named after the General who led the Arab conquest of Egypt. It is the first mosque built in Egypt and in all of Africa . The location for the mosque was the site of the tent of the commander of the Muslim army, general Amr ibn al-As. The original layout was a simple rectangle, 29 meters in length by 17 meters wide. It was a low shed with columns made from split palm tree trunks, stones and mud bricks, covered by a roof of wood and palm leaves. The floor was of gravel. Inside the building the orientation toward Mecca was not noted by a concave niche like it would be in all later mosques. Instead four columns were used to point out the direction of Mecca, and were inserted on the qibla wall. It was large enough to provide prayer space for Amr's army, but had no other adornments, and no minarets. Today, nothing of the original building remains but a mosque still stands on its location. One corner of the mosque contains the tomb of his son, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Amr ibn al-'As.
Around 643 AD: Peroz III (Middle Persian: 𐭯𐭩𐭫𐭥𐭰, Persian: پیروز "the Victor"; Chinese: 卑路斯; pinyin: Bēilùsī)(Life: 636 AD - Unknown), son of Yazdegerd III, the last Sasanid king of Persia, flees to territory under the control of the Tang Dynasty in China. He then went on to serve as a Tang general and the head of the Governorate of Iran, an exiled extension of the Sasanid court. Most of what is known of Peroz III is written in the Old Book of Tang and the New Book of Tang. In the old Book of Tang one finds evidence of Peroz III being escorted back to Persia in the year 678 AD. There after spending some 20 years in Tuhuoluo (吐火羅; likely Bactra or Tokharistan) he then returned to the Tang court in the year 708 AD and being given the title of Zuoweiwei Jiangjun (左威衛將軍 Awe-inspiring General of the Left [Flank] Guards. However, the New Book of Tang claim that Peroz III died before the year 678 AD, and that his son Persian was the one escorted to Persia and spending time in Tuhuoluo.
643 AD: Emperor Constans II recognises Theodore Rshtuni as ruler of Armenia, after his successful campaign against the Muslims. He names him commander (nakharar) of the Armenian army. Maurikios names himself dux of Rome, and revolts against exarch Isaac (Exarchate of Ravenna). He declares Rome's independence from the Exarchate and from the Byzantine Empire . Meanwhile the Arab-Byzantine War continues in North Africa (Libya).
643 AD: Chinese prefectural government officials travel to the capital of Chang'An ( Xi'An), to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts. Emperor Taizong discovers that many have no proper quarters to rest in, and are renting rooms with merchants. Therefore, Taizong orders the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital.
643 AD: A Chinese embassy is sent to the North Indian Empire. They are invited by Emperor Harsha, who holds a Buddhist convocation at the capital Kannauj, which is attended by 20 kings and thousands of pilgrims. Taizong commissions artist Yan Liben to paint in the Lingyan Pavilion the life-size portraits of 24 government officials, to commemorate their service and contributions to the founding of the Tang Dynasty.
644 AD: Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty sends a Chinese expeditionary force, to invade and annex the Tarim Basin kingdom of Karasahr (originally known, in the Tocharian languages as Ārśi (or Arshi) and Agni)(in current day PRC renamed Yānqí (焉耆), Yanqi Hui Autonomous County, Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region), a vassal of the Western Turkic Khaganate. The oasis state is conquered, and Western Turks sent to assist Karasahr are defeated by the Tang forces.
644 AD: Valentinus (Greek: Οὐαλεντῖνος/Βαλεντῖνος), Byzantine general, attempts to usurp the throne of his son-in-law Constans II. He appears at the gates of Constantinople with a contingent of Byzantine troops, and demands to be crowned emperor. His claim is rejected, and Valentinus is lynched by the populace.
November 6, 644 AD: Caliph Umar I, age 65, dies of wounds inflicted on November 3 by the Persian slave Piruz Nahavandi (Persian: پیروز نهاوندی, Pīruz Nahāvandī or Persian: فیروز نهاوندی Fīruz Nahāvandī), formerly a Sasanian General who had been captured in the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (or Battle of Nahavand) in 636 AD, at Medina, after a 10-year reign. On his death bed he appoints a committee to determine his successor. They select Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عثمان بن عفان, translit. ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān)(Life: 579 AD - 17 June 656 AD), who becomes caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.
The assassination attempt on Caliph Umar was and is widely celebrated among Shia Muslims, who for religious reasons consider Umar to have been a wrongful ruler. In Shia dominated Persia the assassin Piruz Nahavandi is considered a national hero, receiving the honorary title Baba Shuja Ad-Deen (literally 'the brave of the religion'). The day of Umar's assassination (9 Rabi' al-awwal), and the glorification of Nahavandi, is still celebrated in remote Iranian villages and was previously celebrated in major
YouTube Video: The Tomb or Mausoleum of Piruz Nahavandi, Assassin of Caliph Umar I, situated near Kashan (Persian: کاشان, also Romanized as: Kāshān) in Isfahan Province of Iran .
Iranian cities until the protests of Arab countries resulted in its banning there by the authorities. The celebration is known as jashn-e Omar koshi (the celebration of the killing of Umar).
645 AD: Alexandria (on the Nile Delta in Egypt) revolts against Arab rule at the appearance of a Byzantine fleet, (300 ships) and Byzantine forces recapture the city. Abdullah ibn Sa'ad, Arab governor of Egypt, mounts an assault and retakes it. He begins building a Muslim fleet.
645 AD: Xuanzang (Chinese: 玄奘; pinyin: Xuánzàng)(Life: Ca. 602 AD - 665 AD), Chinese Buddhist monk, returns to China after a 16-year pilgrimage to India. He is greeted with much honor by Emperor Taizong.
646 AD: Arab-Byzantine War: Alexandria is recaptured by the Muslim Arabs after a Byzantine attempt (see 645) to retake Egypt fails, ending nearly 1,000 years of Greco-Roman civilization. In the aftermath, Gregory the Patrician (Greek: Γρηγόριος, Latin: Flavius Gregorius), Byzantine exarch of Africa, begins a rebellion against Constans II and proclaims himself emperor. The revolt has found broad support among the populace.
May, 646 AD: Following his insurrection Gregory the Patrician faces the Arab armies of the Rashidun Caliphate in the Battle of Nikiou: The Rashidun army (15,000 men) under Amr ibn al-'As defeats a smaller Byzantine force, near the fortified town of Nikiou (Egypt). Amr ibn al-'As builds fortifications in Alexandria and quarters in the vicinity a strong garrison, which twice a year is relieved from Upper Egypt.
Summer, 646 AD: On August 1, 646, the Xueyantuo were defeated by the Uyghur (Huihu, 回纥) and the Chinese. The Xueyantuo's Duomi Khan, Bazhuo, was killed by the Uyghur who were in alliance with the Chinese Tang Dynasty. Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty follows up on this event and his troops led by the general Li Daozong (李道宗)(Ca. 603 AD - 656 AD), finally destroy the Xueyantuo state (Chinese: 薛延陀 ; Seyanto, Se-yanto, Se-Yanto) or Syr-Tardush (in current day Mongolia), during the campaign against the Xueyantuo (North Central Asia). The last Xueyantuo khan, the Yitewushi Khan Duomozhi ((伊特勿失可汗), personal name Duomozhi (咄摩支)), surrendered. In fall 646, Duomozhi was delivered to the Tang capital Chang'An. Emperor Taizong commissioned him as a general. Xueyantuo was at its end. Duomozhi himself would die before Emperor Taizong's death in 649 and was said to have been mourned with honor.
Map of China and Bordering Nations of Asia - Detailed Topographical View
A Geographical overview Map of China and neighboring Nations of Central, East and South-East Asia with National Borders and Capitals. Nations are Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, India, parts of Pakistan, parts of Afghanistan, Tajikistan, parts of Kyrgystan, parts of Kazakhstan, Eastern parts of Russia (Russian Federation), Republic of Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, a small part of Japan, and further the South-East Asian Nations of the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, MyanMar (Burma) and Bangladesh.
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646 AD: Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty sends a Chinese mission to study Indian techniques of sugar manufacturing, at Bihar in the Ganges Valley.
647 AD: Taizong establishes a Chinese military government (protectorate) to pacify the former territory of Xueyantuo, which extends to the Altai Mountains in the west.
648 AD: Tang general Ashina She'er re-establishes Tang control of Karasahr, and leads a military campaign against the Tarim Basin kingdom of Kucha (Kucha or Kuche (also: Kuçar, Kuchar; Uyghur: كۇچار, Куча, simplified Chinese: 龟兹; traditional Chinese: 龜茲; pinyin: Qiūcí; also romanized as Qiuzi, Qiuci, Chiu-tzu, Kiu-che, Kuei-tzu, Guizi from Chinese: 屈支 屈茨; 丘玆; 俱支曩; 苦叉; 姑藏; Sanskrit: Kucina)) in the west of the Tarim River basin and south of the Tianshan mountains, which was at the time a vassal of the Western Turkic Khaganate.
648 AD: The Book of Jin (simplified Chinese: 晋书 ; traditional Chinese: 晉書) is compiled in China during the Tang Dynasty. The book covers the history of the Jin dynasty (265 AD - 420 AD) and also the Sixteen Kingdoms period, in no less than 130 volumes. Its chief editor is the chancellor Fang Xuanling (房玄齡)(Life: 579 AD - 648 AD), who dies in this year as well.
648 AD: In the Byzantine Empire Emperor Constans II, to quiet the intense controversy caused by the Monothelete doctrine, issues an imperial edict forbidding the subject to be discussed. This edict, distributed by patriarch Paul II in Constans' name, is known as the Typos.
648 AD: Pope Theodore I excommunicates Paul II the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 641 AD to 653 AD. In response, Paul destroyed the Roman altar in the palace of Placidia and exiled or imprisoned the papal nuncios. But he also sought to end the issue with the Emperor by promulgating the Type of Constans, ordering that the Ecthesis be taken down and seeking to end discussion on the doctrine.
January 9, 649 AD: The Tang campaign against Kucha ends after the forces of Kucha surrender, following a 40-day siege led by general Ashina She'er, establishing Chinese control over the northern Tarim Basin (Xinjiang).
649 AD: Arab–Byzantine War: Arab naval forces under Abdullah ibn Saad conquer Cyprus, sacking the capital Constantia (Salamis ; Ancient Greek: Σαλαμίς) on the east coast of the island after a short siege, and looting the rest of the island. The Cypriots agree to pay the same revenue (tribute) as they have done to Emperor Constans II.
October 5, 649 AD: The Lateran Council of 649 (a synod held in the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome), summoned by Theodore and carried forward by Martin, opens. It strongly condemns Monothelitism and the Type of Constans. In response, Constans II orders Olympius, exarch of the Exarchate of Ravenna, to arrest Pope Martin I on the ostensible grounds that the pope's election has not been submitted to the emperor for approval, but in fact because of the Lateran Council of 649's condemnation of Monothelitism and the Type of Constans. Olympius attempts to gain the support of the citizens of Rome and the bishops, with little success, and perhaps considers the assassination of the Pope. Although Pope Martin I and Maximus the Confessor were abducted by Constans II and tried in Constantinople for their role in the Council (Martin I being replaced as pope), eventually Olympius decided to switch his allegiance and sided with the Pope, simultaneously declaring himself Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Pope Martin I eventually died in exile, however the efforts of Constants are ultimately in vain as the position of the Lateran Council was eventually endorsed by the Third Council of Constantinople in 680 AD. (Olympius invaded Sicily with an army in 652 AD and died there)
649 AD: Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (Arabic: معاوية بن أبي سفيان, translit. Muʿāwiyah ibn Abī Sufyān)(Life: 602 AD - 26 April 680) AD, governor of Syria, develops an Arab navy in the Levant and uses it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea. It is manned by Monophysitise Christian, Coptic and Syrian Christian sailors.
649 AD: Death of Songtsen Gampo (Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ, Wylie: srong btsan sgam po), founder and King of the Tibetan Empire.
Around 650 AD: The Khazar Khaganate (Persian: خزر, Azerbaijani: Xəzərlər; Turkish: Hazarlar; Bashkir: Хазарлар; Tatar: Хәзәрләр, Xäzärlär; Hebrew: כוזרים, Kuzarim; Xazar; Ukrainian: Хоза́ри, Chozáry; Russian: Хаза́ры, Hazáry; Hungarian: Kazárok; Xazar; Greek: Χάζαροι, Cházaroi; Latin: Gazari/Gasani)(650 AD - 969 AD) extends from the Dnieper to the Caspian Sea, and establishes the city, Itil (ao Atil ; (Turkish: İtil; cf. Chinese: 阿得/阿得水, A-de Shui, literally meaning "Big River") on the shore of the Caspian. Atil was a multi-ethnic and religiously diverse city, inhabited by Jews, Christians, Muslims, Shamanists, and Pagans, many of them traders from foreign countries. (After 720 AD it becomes the Capital of the Khzar Khaganate.) Northward the territory of the Khazar Khaganate extends to the headwaters of the Volga. Their rulers accept the Jewish religion, apparently to assert their independence from both Muslims and Christians.
Around 650 AD (or 652 AD): First Arab-Khazar War - A Rashidun Caliphate army led by Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah (Arabic: عبدالرحمن بن ربيعة) is annihilated by the Khazars, near the it's early Capital city of Balanjar (Baranjar, Belenjer, Belendzher, Bülünjar) in the Northern Caucasus (until the early 720s, Balanjar served as the capital of Khazaria). During the battle, both sides use catapults against the other.
650 AD: The first Chinese paper money is issued, yet these banknotes will not become government-issued until the Song Dynasty era (Chinese: 宋朝; pinyin: Sòng cháo)(960 AD - 1279 AD) Sichuan province issues them in the year 1024, with the central government of China following suit in the 12th century.
650 AD: Death of Chen Yueyi (Chinese: 陳月儀)(Life: Ca. 565 AD - Ca. 650 AD), previously Empress of Northern Zhou. She was was a concubine of Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou (北)周宣帝)(Life: 559 AD - 580 AD).
651 AD: Having fled his Capital and on the run from an Arab invasion force, King Yazdegerd III (literally meaning "made by God"; New Persian: یزدگرد; Izdegerdes in classical sources), the 38th and last King of Sasanid of Persia is murdered in a miller's hut near Merv (Turkmen: Merw, Мерв, مرو; Persian: مرو, Marv)(in current day Turkmenistan) (likely) on behalf of the Governor (marzbān) of Merv Māhūy Sūrī. This event ends both Persian resistance to Arab conquest, and the Sasanid Empire. Ferdowsi, a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni, recounts the killing of Yazdegerd III by the miller at the behest of Mahuy Suri. “Mahui sends the miller to cut off his head on pain of losing his own, and having none of his race left alive. His chiefs hear this and cry out against him, and a Mobed of the name of Radui tells him that to kill a king or prophet will bring evil upon him and his son, and is supported in what he says by a holy man of the name of Hormuzd Kharad Shehran, and Mehronush. The miller most unwillingly goes in and stabs him with a dagger in the middle. Mahui's horsmen all go and see him and take off his clothing and ornaments, leaving him on the ground. All the nobles curse Mahui and wish him the same fate".
651 AD: The Rashidun Caliphate army under command of Abdullah ibn Aamir invades Afghanistan, and captures the main forts in Khorasan (modern Iran). The Muslim Arabs occupy the city of Herat (Persian: هرات,Harât ,Herât; Pashto: هرات; Ancient Greek: Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ ἐν Ἀρίοις, Alexándreia hē en Aríois; Latin: Alexandria Ariorum)(in current day Afghanistan), which surrenders peacefully.
651 AD: An Arab Rashidun Caliphate Embassy led by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (Arabic: سعد بن أبي وقاص)(one of the original companions of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad) arrives in the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty Chang'An ( Xi'An) via an oversea route. They are greeted by Emperor Gao Zong, who orders the establishment of the first Chinese mosque. Thus, Saʿd has been traditionally credited by Chinese Muslims with introducing Islam to China in 650, the year of his arrival in China during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang.
651 AD: The Qur'an (Arabic: القرآن al-Qurʾān, literally meaning "the recitation"; also romanized Qur'an or Koran) is compiled by Caliph Uthman ibn Affan ((Arabic: عثمان بن عفان, translit. ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān), also known in English by the Turkish and Persian rendering, Osman)(Life: 579 AD - 17 June 656 AD) in its present form. The text become the model from which copies are made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Arab world.
652 AD: The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (also today more popularly: Great Goose Pagoda)(Chinese: 大雁塔; pinyin: Dàyàn tǎ)(i.e. the stone tower of the Da Cien Temple) is constructed in Chang'An (modern Xi'an), during the Tang Dynasty (China). It is completed in the same year, during the reign of Emperor Gao Zong (Reign: 15 July 649 AD - 27 December 683 AD).
652 AD: Arab–Byzantine War: An Arab fleet under command of Abdullah ibn Sa'ad (Arabic: عبدالله بن سعد بن أبي السرح), the Governor of Egypt, defeats the Byzantine fleet (500 ships) off the coast of Alexandria.
652 AD: Uthman ibn Affan, the third Rashidun Caliph, establishes a treaty (the Baqt) between the Christian Nubians and the Muslims in Egypt, that lasts for six centuries.
653 AD: Abdel al Rahman ibn Awf (Arabic: عبد الرحمن بن عوف), companion (sahabah) of Muhammad, frees 30,000 slaves at his death. He died at the age of 75 years, in the Levant (بلاد الشام) in 33 AH (653-654 CE). He was buried on a hill to the north-east of present-day Amman, Capital of Jordan.
653 AD: Byzantine Emperor Constans II (Greek: Κώνστας Β', Kōnstas II; Latin: Heraclius Constantinus Augustus or Flavius Constantinus Augustus)(Reign: 641 AD - 668 AD) voluntarily surrenders Armenia to the Rashidun Arabs, following a truce with Muawiyah, governor of Syria. He grants the Armenians virtual autonomy, and appoints the nakharar Theodor Rshtuni as ruler of Armenia.
653 AD: Governor of Syria Muawiyah leads a raid against the island of Rhodes, pillaging the island and destroying the world wonder Colossus of Rhodes Statue, according to legend taking the scattered pieces of the Colossus of Rhodes (Ancient Greek: ὁ Κολοσσὸς Ῥόδιος, translit. ho Kolossòs Rhódios)(one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) and shipping it back to Syria, where he destroys the bronze scrap to make coins. (according to The Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, the statue was melted down and sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa (Emesa, current day Homs, Syria) who loaded the bronze on 900 camels. The Arab destruction and the purported sale to a Jew possibly originated as a powerful metaphor for Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the destruction of a great statue.)
June 17, 653 AD: Pope Martin I is arrested in the Lateren in Rome, along with Maximus the Confessor, on orders of Emperor Constans II, and taken to imprisonment in Constantinople.
654 AD: Emperor Constans II appoints his son Constantine IV, age 2, co-emperor (Augustus). He is too young to rule as monarch of the Byzantine Empire, and his title remains a given name.
654 AD: Muawiyah, governor of Syria, stations a large garrison on Cyprus. He conquers the Greek island of Kos in the Dodecanese.
654 AD: Arab invaders cross the Oxus River (Amu Darya, also called the Amu or Amo River ; Persian: آمودریا, translit. Âmudaryâ; Turkmen: Amyderýa/Амыдеря; Uzbek: Amudaryo/Амударё/ەمۇدەريا; Tajik: Амударё, Amudaryo; Pashto: د آمو سيند, də Āmú Sínd; Turkish: Ceyhun, Amu Derya; Ancient Greek: Ὦξος, translit. Ôxos), in what later will be Uzbekistan. Nomadic Turkic tribes continue to control Central Asia.
August 10, 654 AD: The exiled Pope Martin I is deposed, and succeeded by Eugene I (Papacy: 10 August, 654 AD - 2 June, 657 AD), as the 75th pope of the Roman Catholic Church. On September 17, Martin is taken to Constantinople and publicly humiliated, for having condemned the Byzantine Emperor Constans II in 649. The new Pope Eugene I would soon find himself in likewise troubles with the Byzantine Emperor and Church of Constantinople.
May 15, 655 AD: Pope Martin I is banished to Chersonesos Taurica (Ukraine). He dies later in the Crimean Peninsula after a 6-year reign, leaving Eugene I as the uncontested pope (see 654 AD).
June 1, 654 AD: Death of Pyrrhus, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, first from 20 December 638 to 29 September 641, and again from 9 January to 1 June 654.
655 AD: Battle of the Masts (Arabic: معركة ذات الصواري, romanized Ma‘rakat Dhāt al-Ṣawārī)(also Battle of Phoenix): Emperor Constans II personally commands the Byzantine fleet (500 ships), and sets off to
655 AD: Arab armies conquer Khurasan (Iran), and parts of the Silk Road in Transoxiana (Arabic: ما وراء النهر ; Mā warāʼ an-Nahr)(Persian: Farārūd)(Today, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia).
September 16, 655 AD: Death of Pope Martin I at Cherson (Center of Cherson Theme) on the Crimean Peninsula.
656 AD: First Islamic Civil War: An armed revolt erupts in Egypt; several Muslim sympathisers travel to Medina to rally support, beginning the fitna (literally meaning the 'trail of faith'). The Muslim expansion comes to a halt; the martial energies of the Islamic forces are direct inwards.
June 20, 656 AD: Caliph Uthman ibn Affan is murdered at Medina after an 11-year reign. He is succeeded by Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi-Talib (Life: 15 September 601 AD - 29 January 661 AD), who becomes the fourth caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. He makes Kufah (Iraq) his capital, but the succession is disputed leading to further civil wars within the Empire.
November 7, 656 AD: Battle of the Camel (also Battle of Jamal or the Battle of Bassorah): Rebel Arabs under Aisha (widow of Muhammad) begin a revolt against Ali. They are defeated at Basra (in current day Iraq), and Aisha is exiled to Medina. During the battle 10,000 people lose their life, with each party bearing equal loss.
November 26, 656 AD: Li Xiăn (李顯), seventh son of the Chinese Emperor Gao Zong, is born. Later in life he will be made crown prince and he will go on to rule as Emperor Zhongzong (中宗) of Tang.
656 AD: Abdullah ibn Sa'ad, conqueror and then governor of Upper Egypt, dies after a 12-year regime in which he has defeated neighboring Nubia (roughly the area between Aswan in southern Egypt and Khartoum in central Sudan).
May-July, 657 AD: Battle of Siffin (Arabic: وقعة صفين): Muslim forces under command of Caliph Ali ibn Abi-Talib fight an inconclusive battle against forces led by Governor of Syria Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan (Arabic: معاوية بن أبي سفيان, translit. Muʿāwiyah ibn Abī Sufyān)(Life: 602 AD - 26 April 680 AD), on the banks of the Euphrates, near Raqqa (Syria). The Arab civil war then continues afterwards.
657 AD: Tang Dynasty military campaigns against the Western Turks: Emperor Gao Zong dispatches a military campaign led by Su Dingfang (traditional Chinese: 蘇定方; simplified Chinese: 苏定方; pinyin: Sū Dìngfāng; Wade–Giles: Su Tingfang)(Life: 591 AD - 667 AD) supported by its allies of the Uyghur Khganate (Chinese: Huige) and rebel Turkic Tribal Chiefs Ashina Mishe (阿史那彌射) and Ashina Buzhen (阿史那步真). He annexes the Western Turkic Khaganate. As a result, the territory of the Tang Dynasty Empire reaches its greatest westward extend (highpoint). The leading Khan Ashina Helu fled to Shi (石國, modern Tashkent), a vassal of Western Turks, but Shi, not willing to risk being attacked by Tang forces as well, captured and turned Ashina Helu over to Tang forces.
Schematic Map of the Tang Dynasty (618 AD - 907 AD) Empire at its High Point during the 7Th Century AD (following victory over the Western Turkic Khaganate). This Chinese Map, produced in 1948 AD clearly shows Tibet as a separate Territory, which is in a Tributary Relation to the Tang Empire (after 641 AD). This relation had been reversed in 763 AD & afterwards only briefly reoccurred.
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657 AD: Emperor Tang Gao Zong commissions the pharmacology publication of an official materia medica, documenting the use of 833 different substances for medicinal purposes.
Around 658 AD: Emperor Constans II undertakes an expedition to the Balkan Peninsula, and defeats the Avars in Macedonia. He temporarily reasserts Byzantine rule, and resettles some of them in Anatolia to fight against the Rashidun Caliphate.
Asia Report - Map Roads & highways in Central Asian Nations
A geographical and topographical overview Map of the Central Asian Nations of (South) Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Parts of North Iran, North Afghanistan, North Pakistan, North India (Jammu & Kashmir), and the region of Kashgar (Kashi) in West China's
Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.
Map includes International Borders, national provinces and regions (where possible), main cities and roads, main lakes and waters, as well as the locations of Historic Sites, wildlife reserves, officially designated ethnic autonomous communities, main mountain peaks with heights and more coming soon !
Browse the Map, click and follow the links to additional information on each site and location. Click on selected highlighted Map sections for a more detailed map of that Region. Explore the connections in central Asia as never before !
challenge the Arab navy. He sails to the province of Lycia (Turkey) in the southern region of Asia Minor. The two forces meet off the coast of Mount Phoenix, near the harbour of Phoenix (modern Finike, Antalya Province, Turkey). The Arabs under Abdullah ibn Sa'ad are victorious in battle, although losses are heavy for both sides. Constans barely escapes to Constantinople. The Arab victory at sea establishes their naval dominance in this part of the Mediterranean Sea. An Arab land army invading Asia Minor at the same time returns to Syria having lost it's artillery and siege engines.
658 AD: After the demise of the Western Turkic Kaganate in Central Asia, the Chinese Tang Dynasty attempts to pacify and stabilise the regions. The West kaganate officially becomes a vassal of the Tang Dynasty, but during the power vacuum, Turgesh tribes (Old Turkic: Türügesh, 突騎施/突骑施) emerge as the new leading power while the various turkic tribes remain restive.
659 AD: The Battle of Nahrawan (Arabic: معركة النهروان, translit. Ma'rakat an-Nahrawān) takes place between forces of Caliph (Imam) Ali ibn Abi Talib and followers of the Khawarij Islamic Sect commanded by Abdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasib in Nahrawan (Some 12 miles from Baghdad), Iraq. As the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate continued the persecution of the Kharijites after the battle, the Kharijites that survived the battle against Caliph Ali managed to flee to Basrah, Sistan, Khurasan, Oman, Yemen, Tell Mozan, and elsewhere, where they had their offspring, spread their beliefs and recruited more followers. Today Ibadis of Oman (and parts of Africa) are known as their descendants and followers.
659 AD: Arab-Byzantine War: Byzantine Emperor Constans II signs a peace treaty with the Rashidun Caliphate. He uses the pause to strengthen his defences, and consolidates Byzantine control over Armenia. Constans establishes the themata, dividing territorial command in Anatolia.
659 AD: Byzantine Emperor Constans II elevates his son Heraclius (Greek: Ἡράκλειος, Herakleios) to the rank of co-emperor (Augustus), alongside his brother Tiberius (Greek: Τιβέριος, Tiberios).
660 AD: Emperor Constans II is paranoid about the ambitions of his younger brother, Theodosius, and has him murdered. Having attracted the hatred of the citizens of Constantinople, Constans decides to leave the Byzantine capital and moves to Syracuse (Italian: Siracusa; Sicilian: Sarausa/Seragusa; Latin: Syrācūsae; Ancient Greek: Συράκουσαι, Syrakousai; Medieval Greek: Συρακοῦσαι)(on the island of Sicily).
Ca. January 4, 659 AD: Birth of Ali ibn Husayn (Arabic: علي بن الحسين) known as Zayn al-Abidin (the adornment of the worshippers) and Imam al-Sajjad (The Prostrating Imam), was the fourth Shia Imam.
660 AD: Tang Dynasty Emperor Gao Zong suffers from an illness (possibly slow-poisoning). His wife Wu Zetian (武則天)(624 AD - December 16, 705 AD) starts to rule the Chinese Empire.
655 AD: Infighting at the Chinese Tang Dynasty court in Chang'An between the clique surrounding Empress Wang and the clique of Imperial Consort Wu comes to a climax. The Tang Emperor Gaozong has both Empress Wang (who remains childless) and Consort Xiao deposed, putting them under arrest and creating Consort Wu as new Empress to replace Empress Wang. Thus, Wu became Tang Gaozong's new empress consort (皇后, húanghòu). Later that year, Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were killed on orders by the new Empress Wu after Emperor Gaozong showed signs of considering their release. For the rest of Emperor Gaozong's reign, Emperor Gaozong and she often took up residence at the eastern capital Luoyang and only infrequently spent time in Chang'An.
656 AD: On the advice of Chancellor Xu Jingzong (Life: 592 AD - September 20, 672 AD), Tang Emperor Gaozong deposed Consort Liu's son Li Zhong from being his heir apparent, changing his status to being the Prince of Liang, while designating Empress Wu Zetian's son Li Hong, then carrying the title of Prince of Dai, as crown prince (that is, Heir Apparent)..
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